{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T14:59:51Z","timestamp":1785423591066,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":120,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,9]],"date-time":"2025-05-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1746748800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Nutr."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Spinal cord injury (SCI) leads to complex nutritional alterations, including energy imbalance, skewed macronutrient and micronutrient intake, and disrupted nutrient absorption and metabolism. These changes contribute to increased risks of obesity, cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, and other comorbidities, profoundly affecting long-term recovery and quality of life. Despite the growing recognition of these challenges, nutritional assessment methods for SCI patients remain fragmented and insufficient. This review first outlines the major nutritional consequences and clinical implications of SCI, then focuses on current methods for assessing nutritional status in this population. Three major domains are discussed: body composition analysis, nutrient intake and absorption assessment, and energy metabolism monitoring. Traditional tools such as anthropometry, food diaries, and indirect calorimetry are discussed alongside advanced technologies including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), and metabolomics. By highlighting both current limitations and emerging solutions, this review underscores the importance of personalized, technology-assisted nutritional assessment strategies to guide clinical decision-making and optimize outcomes for individuals with SCI.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2025.1576976","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,9]],"date-time":"2025-05-09T04:11:16Z","timestamp":1746763876000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Nutritional alterations, adverse consequences, and comprehensive assessment in spinal cord injury: a review"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Zehui","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoxin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yan","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yingli","family":"Jing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Huayong","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wubo","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chunjia","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zuliyaer","family":"Talifu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yunzhu","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianjun","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17018","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2017.18","article-title":"Traumatic spinal cord injury","volume":"3","author":"Ahuja","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat Rev Dis Primers"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2023.112345","article-title":"Longitudinal changes in body composition and diet after acute spinal cord injury","volume":"120","author":"Desneves","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5853","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-56527-y","article-title":"Impact of malnutrition on mortality and neurological recovery of older patients with spinal cord injury","volume":"14","author":"Tamai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.14740\/jocmr5015","article-title":"What we do and what we should do against malnutrition in spinal cord injury: a position paper from Italian spinal cord injury network rehabilitation centers","volume":"16","author":"Areni","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Clin Med Res"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1017\/s0007114521003822","article-title":"Energy expenditure and nutrient intake after spinal cord injury: a comprehensive review and practical recommendations","volume":"128","author":"Farkas","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br J Nutr"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1310\/sci2404-379","article-title":"Identification and Management of Cardiometabolic Risk after spinal cord injury: clinical practice guideline for health care providers","volume":"24","author":"Nash","year":"2018","journal-title":"Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1038\/s41393-018-0218-4","article-title":"Nutritional status in chronic spinal cord injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"57","author":"Farkas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.46292\/sci20-00031","article-title":"Dietetics after spinal cord injury: current evidence and future perspectives","volume":"27","author":"Farkas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1761","DOI":"10.2147\/cia.S325008","article-title":"Anorexia of aging: metabolic changes and biomarker discovery","volume":"17","author":"Picca","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin Interv Aging"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2479","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v26.i20.2479","article-title":"Diet in neurogenic bowel management: a viewpoint on spinal cord injury","volume":"26","author":"Bernardi","year":"2020","journal-title":"World J Gastroenterol"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.380881","article-title":"Dual-directional regulation of spinal cord injury and the gut microbiota","volume":"19","author":"Cui","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neural Regen Res"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1419","DOI":"10.1002\/cphy.c130045","article-title":"Autonomic consequences of spinal cord injury","volume":"4","author":"Hou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Compr Physiol"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118865","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2020.118865","article-title":"Spinal cord injury and gut microbiota: a review","volume":"266","author":"Jing","year":"2021","journal-title":"Life Sci"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00704","article-title":"Traumatic spinal cord injury and the gut microbiota: current insights and future challenges","volume":"11","author":"Jogia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1207","DOI":"10.1038\/s41393-018-0195-7","article-title":"Effect of early treatment with zoledronic acid on prevention of bone loss in patients with acute spinal cord injury: a randomized controlled trial","volume":"56","author":"Goenka","year":"2018","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2010.05806.x","article-title":"Bone and muscle loss after spinal cord injury: organ interactions","volume":"1211","author":"Qin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann N Y Acad Sci"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1038\/sc.2016.102","article-title":"The course of fatigue after acute spinal cord injury","volume":"55","author":"Anton","year":"2017","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4761","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-55238-8","article-title":"Fatigue insights from walking tests in spinal cord injury and multiple sclerosis individuals","volume":"14","author":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Canosa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1088","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm12071088","article-title":"The diagnosis and Management of Cardiometabolic Risk and Cardiometabolic Syndrome after spinal cord injury","volume":"12","author":"Farkas","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Pers Med"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1038\/s41393-023-00956-5","article-title":"Monitoring outcome measures for cardiometabolic disease during rehabilitation and follow-up in people with spinal cord injury","volume":"62","author":"Holm","year":"2024","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"930","DOI":"10.1038\/s41393-020-0430-x","article-title":"Exploring nutrition knowledge and dietary intake of adults with spinal cord injury in specialist rehabilitation","volume":"58","author":"Iyer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1080\/01952307.1983.11735976","article-title":"Nutrition in spinal cord injury patients","volume":"6","author":"Barboriak","year":"1983","journal-title":"J Am Paraplegia Soc"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0236752","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0236752","article-title":"Waist circumference cutoff identifying risks of obesity, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular disease in men with spinal cord injury","volume":"15","author":"Gill","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-022-05069-0","article-title":"Predictors of muscle hypertrophy responsiveness to electrically evoked resistance training after spinal cord injury","volume":"123","author":"Gorgey","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur J Appl Physiol"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1080\/10790268.2009.11760749","article-title":"Nutrient intake and body habitus after spinal cord injury: an analysis by sex and level of injury","volume":"32","author":"Groah","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Spinal Cord Med"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2011.04.007","article-title":"Calorie and macronutrients intake in people with spinal cord injuries: an analysis by sex and injury-related variables","volume":"28","author":"Sabour","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1310\/sci1903-229","article-title":"Calorie and protein intake in acute rehabilitation inpatients with traumatic spinal cord injury versus other diagnoses","volume":"19","author":"Pellicane","year":"2013","journal-title":"Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.46292\/sci20-00067","article-title":"Pathophysiology of neurogenic obesity after spinal cord injury","volume":"27","author":"Gater","year":"2021","journal-title":"Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1080\/10790268.2019.1608062","article-title":"Measured and predicted resting energy expenditure in wheelchair rugby athletes","volume":"43","author":"Broad","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Spinal Cord Med"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2631","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2018.6136","article-title":"Low-dose testosterone and evoked resistance exercise after spinal cord injury on cardio-metabolic risk factors: an open-label randomized clinical trial","volume":"36","author":"Gorgey","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1038\/s41393-017-0024-4","article-title":"Energy expenditure after spinal cord injury in people with motor-complete tetraplegia or motor-complete paraplegia","volume":"56","author":"Holmlund","year":"2018","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1186\/s12966-017-0590-z","article-title":"Energy balance components in persons with paraplegia: daily variation and appropriate measurement duration","volume":"14","author":"Nightingale","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1097\/phm.0000000000001166","article-title":"Caloric intake relative to Total daily energy expenditure using a spinal cord injury-specific correction factor: an analysis by level of injury","volume":"98","author":"Farkas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am J Phys Med Rehabil"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.1123\/jpah.2012-0149","article-title":"Exercise, energy expenditure, and body composition in people with spinal cord injury","volume":"11","author":"Tanhoffer","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Phys Act Health"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1080\/10790268.2017.1357104","article-title":"Neurogenic obesity and systemic inflammation following spinal cord injury: a review","volume":"41","author":"Farkas","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Spinal Cord Med"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1017\/s0007114523002088","article-title":"The comparison of total energy and protein intake relative to estimated requirements in chronic spinal cord injury","volume":"131","author":"Farkas","year":"2024","journal-title":"Br J Nutr"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1563","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.115.116046","article-title":"Dietary fat intake and risk of cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in a population at high risk of cardiovascular disease","volume":"102","author":"Guasch-Ferr\u00e9","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1161\/circresaha.118.314038","article-title":"Dietary fats in relation to Total and cause-specific mortality in a prospective cohort of 521\u202f120 individuals with 16 years of follow-up","volume":"124","author":"Zhuang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circ Res"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2012.2718","article-title":"Dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids improve the neurolipidome and restore the DHA status while promoting functional recovery after experimental spinal cord injury","volume":"30","author":"Figueroa","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2013.09.012","article-title":"Metabolomics uncovers dietary omega-3 fatty acid-derived metabolites implicated in anti-nociceptive responses after experimental spinal cord injury","volume":"255","author":"Figueroa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1974","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2017-314968","article-title":"A randomised trial of the effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplements on the human intestinal microbiota","volume":"67","author":"Watson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8060374","article-title":"25(OH)D status of elite athletes with spinal cord injury relative to lifestyle factors","volume":"8","author":"Pritchett","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.2017-0233","article-title":"Effect of vitamin D supplementation on 25(OH)D status in elite athletes with spinal cord injury","volume":"29","author":"Pritchett","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1038\/s41393-018-0148-1","article-title":"Vitamin D, diet, and lifestyle in a chronic SCI population","volume":"57","author":"Koutrakis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.5001\/omj.2016.05","article-title":"The relationship between dietary intakes of amino acids and bone mineral density among individuals with spinal cord injury","volume":"31","author":"Sabour","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oman Med J"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1038\/sc.2015.78","article-title":"Vegetable dishes, dairy products and fruits are key items mediating adequate dietary intake for Japanese adults with spinal cord injury","volume":"53","author":"Tsunoda","year":"2015","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.3390\/biology13090703","article-title":"Axonal regeneration after spinal cord injury: molecular mechanisms, regulatory pathways, and novel strategies","volume":"13","author":"Elmalky","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biology"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1556","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina60091556","article-title":"Therapeutic potential of vitamin B complex in peripheral nerve injury recovery: an experimental rat model study","volume":"60","author":"Kahraman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Medicina (Kaunas)"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2019.00406","article-title":"Vitamin B(12) enhances nerve repair and improves functional recovery after traumatic brain injury by inhibiting ER stress-induced neuron injury","volume":"10","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Pharmacol"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-014-1965-4","article-title":"Protective effects of vitamin C against spinal cord injury-induced renal damage through suppression of NF-\u03baB and proinflammatory cytokines","volume":"36","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurol Sci"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci8030038","article-title":"Effects of dietary vitamin E supplementation in bladder function and spasticity during spinal cord injury","volume":"8","author":"Cordero","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Sci"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1120","DOI":"10.1080\/1028415x.2022.2133842","article-title":"Bioactive role of vitamins as a key modulator of oxidative stress, cellular damage and comorbidities associated with spinal cord injury (SCI)","volume":"26","author":"Pedroza-Garc\u00eda","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nutr Neurosci"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0147716","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0147716","article-title":"Dietary supplementation with Organoselenium accelerates recovery of bladder expression, but does not improve locomotor function, following spinal cord injury","volume":"11","author":"Meyer","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2013.12.015","article-title":"Supplement zinc as an effective treatment for spinal cord ischemia\/reperfusion injury in rats","volume":"1545","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Res"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1310\/sci1204-1","article-title":"Prevalence of obesity after spinal cord injury","volume":"12","author":"Gorgey","year":"2007","journal-title":"Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2362.1990.tb01865.x","article-title":"Longitudinal study of bone mineral content in the lumbar spine, the forearm and the lower extremities after spinal cord injury","volume":"20","author":"Biering-S\u00f8rensen","year":"1990","journal-title":"Eur J Clin Investig"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2074","DOI":"10.1002\/jbmr.2227","article-title":"Reduction in proximal femoral strength in patients with acute spinal cord injury","volume":"29","author":"Edwards","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Bone Miner Res"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1007\/s00774-014-0602-x","article-title":"Zoledronic acid administration failed to prevent bone loss at the knee in persons with acute spinal cord injury: an observational cohort study","volume":"33","author":"Bauman","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Bone Miner Metab"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1007\/s004210050606","article-title":"Influence of complete spinal cord injury on skeletal muscle cross-sectional area within the first 6 months of injury","volume":"80","author":"Castro","year":"1999","journal-title":"Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2029","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm12122029","article-title":"Nutrition education to reduce metabolic dysfunction for spinal cord injury: a module-based nutrition education guide for healthcare providers and consumers","volume":"12","author":"Sneij","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Pers Med"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1038\/sc.2008.115","article-title":"Psychological morbidity and spinal cord injury: a systematic review","volume":"47","author":"Craig","year":"2009","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1038\/sc.2016.153","article-title":"Participation in activities and secondary health complications among persons aging with traumatic spinal cord injury","volume":"55","author":"Lundstr\u00f6m","year":"2017","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0228465","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0228465","article-title":"Determinants of dietary behaviour in wheelchair users with spinal cord injury or lower limb amputation: perspectives of rehabilitation professionals and wheelchair users","volume":"15","author":"Holla","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare8040512","article-title":"Eating experiences of people with disabilities: a qualitative study in Spain","volume":"8","author":"Cipriano-Crespo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Healthcare (Basel)"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/09638288.2024.2404182","article-title":"Health consequences associated with poor diet and nutrition in persons with spinal cord injuries and disorders","author":"LaVela","year":"2024","journal-title":"Disabil Rehabil"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.20529.1","article-title":"Neurogenic bowel dysfunction","volume":"8","author":"Emmanuel","year":"2019","journal-title":"F1000Res"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1085638","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2023.1085638","article-title":"The risk of malnutrition in patients with spinal cord injury during inpatient rehabilitation-a longitudinal cohort study","volume":"10","author":"Flury","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Nutr"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1111\/bju.14514","article-title":"Bladder emptying method is the primary determinant of urinary tract infections in patients with spinal cord injury: results from a prospective rehabilitation cohort study","volume":"123","author":"Anderson","year":"2019","journal-title":"BJU Int"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtv.2023.04.005","article-title":"Nutritional status as a predictor of the incidence of pressure injury in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"32","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Tissue Viability"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.46292\/sci20-00062","article-title":"Interrelationship of neurogenic obesity and chronic neuropathic pain in persons with spinal cord injury","volume":"27","author":"Felix","year":"2021","journal-title":"Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1097\/HCR.0b013e3181f68aba","article-title":"Cardiometabolic risk in community-dwelling persons with chronic spinal cord injury","volume":"31","author":"Groah","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Cardiopulm Rehabil Prev"},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"685317","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2021.685317","article-title":"Selenium in human health and gut microflora: bioavailability of Selenocompounds and relationship with diseases","volume":"8","author":"Ferreira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Nutr"},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1038\/s41522-023-00466-5","article-title":"Spinal cord injury-induced gut dysbiosis influences neurological recovery partly through short-chain fatty acids","volume":"9","author":"Jing","year":"2023","journal-title":"NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1800947","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201800947","article-title":"Excess dietary zinc intake in neonatal mice causes oxidative stress and alters intestinal host-microbe interactions","volume":"63","author":"Podany","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol Nutr Food Res"},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2021.09.017","article-title":"Rehabilitation length of stay, body mass index, and functional improvement among adults with traumatic spinal cord injury","volume":"103","author":"Kao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2021.08.026","article-title":"Mortality beyond the first year after spinal cord injury: does body mass index matter?","volume":"103","author":"Wen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1269030","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2023.1269030","article-title":"Effect of body mass index on survival after spinal cord injury","volume":"14","author":"Fallah","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3911","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10173911","article-title":"Body composition according to spinal cord injury level: a systematic review and Meta-analysis","volume":"10","author":"Raguindin","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0251142","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0251142","article-title":"Assessment of body composition in spinal cord injury: a scoping review","volume":"16","author":"van der Scheer","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2013.3042","article-title":"Waist circumference is the best index for obesity-related cardiovascular disease risk in individuals with spinal cord injury","volume":"31","author":"Ravensbergen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.7150\/ijms.41713","article-title":"Are body circumferences able to predict strength, muscle mass and bone characteristics in obesity? A preliminary study in women","volume":"17","author":"Cavedon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Med Sci"},{"key":"ref82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1255","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.01042.2016","article-title":"Anthropometric prediction of skeletal muscle cross-sectional area in persons with spinal cord injury","volume":"122","author":"Wade","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Appl Physiol (1985)"},{"key":"ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"804719","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.804719","article-title":"Advances in phenotyping obesity and in its dietary and pharmacological treatment: a narrative review","volume":"9","author":"Pujia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Nutr"},{"key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2233","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.23554","article-title":"Interscapular fat is associated with impaired glucose tolerance and insulin resistance independent of visceral fat mass","volume":"30","author":"Vosseler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Obesity (Silver Spring)"},{"key":"ref85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.2147\/ijgm.S297660","article-title":"Bone mineral density at the distal femur and proximal tibia and related factors during the first year of spinal cord injury","volume":"14","author":"Zheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Gen Med"},{"key":"ref86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2021.09.004","article-title":"Effects of electrical stimulation training on body composition parameters after spinal cord injury: a systematic review","volume":"103","author":"Bekhet","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2342","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2014.07.395","article-title":"Bone mass in individuals with chronic spinal cord injury: associations with activity-based therapy, neurologic and functional status, a retrospective study","volume":"95","author":"Hammond","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"key":"ref88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-022-04237-4","article-title":"The link between liver fat and cardiometabolic diseases is highlighted by genome-wide association study of MRI-derived measures of body composition","volume":"5","author":"van der Meer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Commun Biol"},{"key":"ref89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.17607","article-title":"Accuracy of ultrasound, bioelectrical impedance analysis and anthropometry as point-of-care measurements of skeletal muscle mass in patients with inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"58","author":"Nguyen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Aliment Pharmacol Ther"},{"key":"ref90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1038\/s41393-021-00682-w","article-title":"Accuracy of bioelectrical impedance analysis and skinfold thickness in the assessment of body composition in people with chronic spinal cord injury","volume":"60","author":"Ma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"935128","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.935128","article-title":"Bioelectrical impedance vector analysis and body composition in cervical spinal cord injury: a pilot study","volume":"9","author":"Bauermann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Nutr"},{"key":"ref92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1017\/s0007114522001830","article-title":"The interaction of macronutrients and body composition among individuals with chronic spinal cord injury","volume":"129","author":"Goldsmith","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br J Nutr"},{"key":"ref93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1646","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2015.05.013","article-title":"Frequency of dietary recalls, nutritional assessment, and body composition assessment in men with chronic spinal cord injury","volume":"96","author":"Gorgey","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"key":"ref94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1670","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2021.1966737","article-title":"Validity of the food frequency questionnaire for adults in nutritional epidemiological studies: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"63","author":"Cui","year":"2023","journal-title":"Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr"},{"key":"ref95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bonr.2015.02.002","article-title":"Influences of nutrition and adiposity on bone mineral density in individuals with chronic spinal cord injury: a cross-sectional, observational study","volume":"2","author":"Doubelt","year":"2015","journal-title":"Bone Rep"},{"key":"ref96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2011.209","article-title":"Validation of the spinal nutrition screening tool (SNST) in patients with spinal cord injuries (SCI): result from a multicentre study","volume":"66","author":"Wong","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"ref97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.5535\/arm.2018.42.4.591","article-title":"The nutritional status and the clinical outcomes of patients with a spinal cord injury using nutritional screening tools","volume":"42","author":"Shin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann Rehabil Med"},{"key":"ref98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1848","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.13264","article-title":"Validation of a telephone-based administration of the simplified nutritional appetite questionnaire","volume":"14","author":"Thai","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1007\/s12603-018-1086-5","article-title":"Usefulness of simplified nutritional appetite questionnaire (SNAQ) in appetite assessment in elder patients with liver cirrhosis","volume":"22","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Nutr Health Aging"},{"key":"ref100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3917","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15183917","article-title":"Prevalence of undernutrition in community-dwelling older adults in the Netherlands: application of the SNAQ(65+) screening tool and GLIM consensus criteria","volume":"15","author":"Z\u00fcg\u00fcl","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocel.2017.07.012","article-title":"The use of stable isotopes in the study of human pathophysiology","volume":"93","author":"Charidemou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int J Biochem Cell Biol"},{"key":"ref102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-021-00472-y","article-title":"Dietary carbohydrates and fats in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"18","author":"Yki-J\u00e4rvinen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol"},{"key":"ref103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"G11","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00113.2021","article-title":"Biomarkers for assessment of intestinal permeability in clinical practice","volume":"321","author":"Seethaler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol"},{"key":"ref104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1801","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jand.2019.06.010","article-title":"Best practices for conducting and interpreting studies to validate self-report dietary assessment methods","volume":"119","author":"Kirkpatrick","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Acad Nutr Diet"},{"key":"ref105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo9090173","article-title":"A facile profiling method of short chain fatty acids using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry","volume":"9","author":"Song","year":"2019","journal-title":"Meta"},{"key":"ref106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo13050605","article-title":"Identification of serum metabolites as prognostic biomarkers following spinal cord injury: a pilot study","volume":"13","author":"Bykowski","year":"2023","journal-title":"Meta"},{"key":"ref107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1038\/s41522-024-00556-y","article-title":"Diet-microbiome interactions promote enteric nervous system resilience following spinal cord injury","volume":"10","author":"Hamilton","year":"2024","journal-title":"NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes"},{"key":"ref108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.1038\/s41393-022-00827-5","article-title":"Predicting resting energy expenditure in people with chronic spinal cord injury","volume":"60","author":"Ma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.46292\/sci20-00030","article-title":"Energy expenditure following spinal cord injury: a delicate balance","volume":"27","author":"Farkas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil"},{"key":"ref110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1038\/sc.2015.193","article-title":"Investigation of measured and predicted resting energy needs in adults after spinal cord injury: a systematic review","volume":"54","author":"Nevin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2333","DOI":"10.1038\/s41366-019-0352-x","article-title":"Estimating energy expenditure from wrist and thigh accelerometry in free-living adults: a doubly labelled water study","volume":"43","author":"White","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int J Obes"},{"key":"ref112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1123\/jpah.2013-0190","article-title":"Energy expenditure in individuals with spinal cord injury quantified by doubly labeled water and a multi-sensor armband","volume":"12","author":"Tanhoffer","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Phys Act Health"},{"key":"ref113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s40798-017-0077-0","article-title":"Measurement of physical activity and energy expenditure in wheelchair users: methods, considerations and future directions","volume":"3","author":"Nightingale","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sports Med Open"},{"key":"ref114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2019.01092","article-title":"Wearable sensors in ambulatory individuals with a spinal cord injury: from energy expenditure estimation to activity recommendations","volume":"10","author":"Popp","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"ref115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1498","DOI":"10.3390\/s21041498","article-title":"Validation of using smartphone built-in accelerometers to estimate the active energy expenditures of full-time manual wheelchair users with spinal cord injury","volume":"21","author":"Marco-Ahull\u00f3","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel)"},{"key":"ref116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1038\/s41393-024-00981-y","article-title":"Validity and reliability study of a novel surface electromyography sensor using a well-consolidated electromyography system in individuals with cervical spinal cord injury","volume":"62","author":"Jayaraman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1698","DOI":"10.3390\/s17071698","article-title":"The role of heart-rate variability parameters in activity recognition and energy-expenditure estimation using wearable sensors","volume":"17","author":"Park","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel)"},{"key":"ref118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1638","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.3c11805","article-title":"Flexible Iron-on sensor embedded in smart sock for gait event detection","volume":"16","author":"Fastier-Wooller","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Appl Mater Interfaces"},{"key":"ref119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.13004\/kjnt.2024.20.e43","article-title":"Using artificial intelligence in the Comprehensive Management of Spinal Cord Injury","volume":"20","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Korean J Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-03180-w","article-title":"Neuroprosthetic baroreflex controls haemodynamics after spinal cord injury","volume":"590","author":"Squair","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Nutrition"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnut.2025.1576976\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,9]],"date-time":"2025-05-09T04:11:17Z","timestamp":1746763877000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnut.2025.1576976\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,9]]},"references-count":120,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fnut.2025.1576976"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnut.2025.1576976","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-861X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-861X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,9]]},"article-number":"1576976"}}