{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T06:07:51Z","timestamp":1793340471721,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770681600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Nutr."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Hypothyroidism can alter the serum lipid profile and the composition of human milk (HM) proteins involved in macronutrient metabolism. We investigated the association between maternal hypothyroidism and HM macronutrient content and fatty acid (FA) composition.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      In this prospective cohort study conducted in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, HM samples from mothers with hypothyroidism (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f19) and mothers without hypothyroidism (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f30) were compared. Eligible participants were breastfeeding mothers of term singleton infants with no history of metabolic disorders or chronic disease. Maternal demographic characteristics, anthropometrics, laboratory markers, dietary intake, and HM samples were collected 4\u201313\u202fweeks postpartum. Primary outcomes were HM macronutrient content and FA composition, analyzed using the Miris HM analyzer and gas chromatography\u2013flame ionization detection, respectively.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Forty-nine participants were recruited between December 12, 2023, and May 31, 2025. HM macronutrient content and total saturated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, and trans FAs (TFAs) did not differ between groups. Among mothers with hypothyroidism, 10 individual FA species differed significantly (eight higher and two lower), characterized by higher industrial TFAs and selected long-chain omega-3 and omega-6 species. Mothers with hypothyroidism had higher levels of docosapentaenoic acid (0.079\u202f\u00b1\u202f0.024% vs. 0.063\u202f\u00b1\u202f0.024%) and elaidic acid (0.286% [0.233\u20130.439%] vs. 0.118% [0.028\u20130.220%]), but lower levels of tricosanoic acid (0.00% [0.00\u20130.00%] vs. 0.011% [0.00\u20130.022%]) (all\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f&amp;lt;\u202f0.05). They also had higher low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (3.45 [2.87\u20133.97] vs. 2.94 [2.35\u20133.32] mmol\/L;\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f0.01), whereas other lipid parameters did not differ significantly.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Maternal hypothyroidism, even when treated with replacement therapy, was associated with altered HM FA composition. These changes may reflect thyroid hormone\u2013related shifts in lipid metabolism, potentially influenced by maternal diet and adipose stores. Future longitudinal research is needed to investigate whether integrating thyroid-aware lactation support and targeted nutritional interventions can effectively modulate these effects and improve breastfeeding outcomes.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2026.1769344","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T07:21:01Z","timestamp":1770708061000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Impact of maternal hypothyroidism on human milk macronutrient content and fatty acid composition: a prospective cohort study"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Shahad","family":"Alodhaybi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Science and Nutrition, King Saud University","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manal Abdulaziz","family":"Binobaed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Science and Nutrition, King Saud University","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rasha Homoud","family":"AlAnazi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Ministry of National Guard Health Affairs","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]},{"name":"King Abdulaziz Medical City, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nora","family":"Elwehedy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"King Abdulaziz Medical City, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]},{"name":"Family Medicine, Ministry of National Guard Health Affairs","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muneera","family":"Baraja","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"King Abdulaziz Medical City, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]},{"name":"Family Medicine, Ministry of National Guard Health Affairs","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fatimah Yousef","family":"Aljawoan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dent Medical Center","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]},{"name":"Breastfeeding Association","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Waleed","family":"Tamimi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"King Abdulaziz Medical City, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]},{"name":"Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of National Guard Health Affairs","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lamia Mohammed","family":"Elamin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"King Abdulaziz Medical City, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]},{"name":"Consultant, Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ministry of National Guard Health Affairs","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Azza","family":"Madkhali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"King Abdulaziz Medical City, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]},{"name":"Consultant, Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ministry of National Guard Health Affairs","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)01932-8","article-title":"Breastfeeding: crucially important, but increasingly challenged in a market-driven world","volume":"401","author":"P\u00e9rez-Escamilla","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12040934","article-title":"The impact of maternal obesity on human Milk macronutrient composition: a systematic review and Meta-analysis","volume":"12","author":"Leghi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.3390\/children11020141","article-title":"High-fat, high-calorie breast Milk in women with overweight or obesity and its association with maternal serum insulin concentration and triglycerides levels","volume":"11","author":"Ross","year":"2024","journal-title":"Children"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16489","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-00940-4","article-title":"Maternal adiposity moderates associations between dietary, serum, and human milk n-3 and n-6 PUFA","volume":"15","author":"Zielinska-Pukos","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-025-07412-7","article-title":"Human milk composition in women with gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"25","author":"Qin","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMC Pregnancy Childbirth"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/HC9.0000000000000596","article-title":"Thyroid hormone and the liver","volume":"9","author":"Soares De Oliveira","year":"2025","journal-title":"Hepatol Commun"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2018.18","article-title":"Global epidemiology of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism","volume":"14","author":"Taylor","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Rev Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.3390\/clinpract11030065","article-title":"Prevalence and characteristics of thyroid abnormalities and its association with Anemia in ASIR region of Saudi Arabia: a cross-sectional study","volume":"11","author":"Alqahtani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin Pract"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e86336","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.86336","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors of subclinical and overt hypothyroidism in Saudi Arabia: a systematic review","volume":"17","author":"Alhajri","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2278027","DOI":"10.1080\/14767058.2023.2278027","article-title":"Associations between hypothyroidism and adverse obstetric and neonatal outcomes: a study of a population database including over 184,000 women with hypothyroidism","volume":"36","author":"Hizkiyahu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2016.0457","article-title":"2017 guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the diagnosis and Management of Thyroid Disease during Pregnancy and the postpartum","volume":"27","author":"Alexander","year":"2017","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1071\/rd02061","article-title":"Effect of hypothyroidism on hormone profiles in virgin, pregnant and lactating rats, and on lactation","volume":"15","author":"Hapon","year":"2003","journal-title":"Reprod Fertil Dev"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2005.0267","article-title":"Reduction of mammary and liver lipogenesis and alteration of Milk composition during lactation in rats by hypothyroidism","volume":"17","author":"Hapon","year":"2007","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2015.09.023","article-title":"Hypothyroidism advances mammary involution in lactating rats through inhibition of PRL signaling and induction of LIF\/STAT3 mRNAs","volume":"419","author":"Arbocc\u00f3","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol Cell Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0205987","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0205987","article-title":"Alteration of the colostrum whey proteome in mothers with gestational hypothyroidism","volume":"13","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3400","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2023-23900","article-title":"A study of the effect of hypothyroidism during pregnancy on human milk quality based on rheological properties","volume":"107","author":"Jin","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Dairy Sci"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1024\/0300-9831\/a000651","article-title":"Fatty acids of human milk \u2013 a review","volume":"92","author":"Bobi\u0144ski","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Vitam Nutr Res"},{"key":"ref19","volume-title":"Milk products\u2014determination of total solids content (reference method): ISO 1736:2008(E) \/ IDF 9:2008(E)","year":"2008"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2519","DOI":"10.1093\/advances\/nmac097","article-title":"Human Milk lipid profiles around the world: a systematic review and Meta-analysis","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv Nutr"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1080\/09637486.2020.1746958","article-title":"Is fatty acid composition of breast milk different in various populations? A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"71","author":"Bahreynian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Food Sci Nutr"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2013.11.002","article-title":"Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acid intake during late pregnancy affects fatty acid composition of mature breast milk","volume":"30","author":"Nishimura","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1585","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11071585","article-title":"The concentration of Omega-3 fatty acids in human Milk is related to their habitual but not current intake","volume":"11","author":"Bzikowska-Jura","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1370","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqz229","article-title":"Human milk fatty acid composition is associated with dietary, genetic, sociodemographic, and environmental factors in the CHILD cohort study","volume":"110","author":"Miliku","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1007\/s11745-005-1419-8","article-title":"Maternal dietary alpine butter intake affects human milk: fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acid isomers","volume":"40","author":"Bertschi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lipids"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"835856","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.835856","article-title":"Changes in human Milk fat globule composition throughout lactation: a review","volume":"9","author":"Thum","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Nutr"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6743","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-63513-7","article-title":"Five serum fatty acids are associated with subclinical hypothyroidism in a Chinese pregnant population","volume":"10","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"792536","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.792536","article-title":"Plasma lipid profile and intestinal microflora in pregnancy women with hypothyroidism and their correlation with pregnancy outcomes","volume":"12","author":"Cai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1930","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19041930","article-title":"Reduced n-3 and n-6 PUFA (DHA and AA) concentrations in breast Milk and erythrocytes phospholipids during pregnancy and lactation in women with obesity","volume":"19","author":"Chamorro","year":"2022","journal-title":"IJERPH"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.52547\/nfsr.8.2.19","article-title":"Comparisons of breast milk fatty acid profiles in overweight and obese women","volume":"8","author":"Karbin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutr Food Sci Res"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2154","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11092154","article-title":"The effect of maternal obesity on breast Milk fatty acids and its association with infant growth and cognition\u2014the PREOBE follow-up","volume":"11","author":"De La Garza Puentes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.3390\/life12071093","article-title":"Fatty acid composition of milk from mothers with normal weight, obesity, or gestational diabetes","volume":"12","author":"Simon Sarkadi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Life"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e12979","DOI":"10.1111\/mcn.12979","article-title":"Impact of maternal overweight and obesity on milk composition and infant growth","volume":"16","author":"Ellsworth","year":"2020","journal-title":"Matern Child Nutr"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2023.0002","article-title":"The association of pre-pregnancy obesity and breast milk fatty acids composition and the relationship of postpartum maternal diet, breast milk fatty acids and infant growth","volume":"18","author":"Tekin-Guler","year":"2023","journal-title":"Breastfeed Med"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2016.12.001","article-title":"Influence of gestational diabetes mellitus on fatty acid concentrations in human colostrum","volume":"36","author":"Azulay Chertok","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1908","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10121908","article-title":"Maternal pre-pregnancy obesity attenuates response to omega-3 fatty acids supplementation during pregnancy","volume":"10","author":"Month\u00e9-Dr\u00e8ze","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e210002","DOI":"10.1530\/EC-21-0002","article-title":"Update on dyslipidemia in hypothyroidism: the mechanism of dyslipidemia in hypothyroidism","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Endocr Connect"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1332383","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2023.1332383","article-title":"The causal relationship between 41 inflammatory cytokines and hypothyroidism: bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomization study","volume":"14","author":"Lai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2716","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/nxac220","article-title":"Fatty acid transfer from blood to Milk is disrupted in mothers with low Milk production, obesity, and inflammation","volume":"152","author":"Walker","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Nutr"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1379772","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2024.1379772","article-title":"Trans isomeric fatty acids in human milk and their role in infant health and development","volume":"11","author":"Hatem","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Nutr"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5455\/njppp.2022.12.01014202213012022","article-title":"Comparative study of lipid profile anomalies in thyroid dysfunction","volume":"1","author":"Gopalakrishnan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Natl J Physiol Pharm Pharmacol"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.32553\/ijmbs.v3i6.301","article-title":"Effects of thyroid dysfunction on lipid profile","volume":"3","author":"Kumar","year":"2019","journal-title":"IJMBS"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3683","DOI":"10.1210\/clinem\/dgaa672","article-title":"Treatment of thyroid dysfunction and serum lipids: a systematic review and Meta-analysis","volume":"105","author":"Kotwal","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metabol"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1248","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/124.8.1248","article-title":"Insulin, cortisol and thyroid hormones modulate maternal protein status and Milk production and composition in humans","volume":"124","author":"Motil","year":"1994","journal-title":"J Nutr"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1405758","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2024.1405758","article-title":"The association between circulating saturated fatty acids and thyroid function: results from the NHANES 2011\u22122012","volume":"15","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1017\/S2040174423000454","article-title":"Human milk polyunsaturated fatty acids are related to neurodevelopmental, anthropometric, and allergic outcomes in early life: a systematic review","volume":"14","author":"Mitguard","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Dev Orig Health Dis"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1111\/ijpo.12215","article-title":"Breastmilk with a high omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acid ratio induced cellular events similar to insulin resistance and obesity in 3T3-L1 adipocytes","volume":"13","author":"Vaidya","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr Obes"}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2026.1864785","type":"correction","label":"Correction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778716800000}}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Nutrition"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnut.2026.1769344\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T13:42:54Z","timestamp":1778766174000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnut.2026.1769344\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]]},"references-count":47,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fnut.2026.1769344"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnut.2026.1769344","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-861X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-861X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]]},"article-number":"1769344"}}