{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T17:34:23Z","timestamp":1791480863810,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781568000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Nutr."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Human milk (HM) contains bioactive compounds and hormones vital for infant neuro- and circadian-development. While healthy term-born infants receive time-of-day cues naturally through breastfeeding, preterm infants in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) are typically fed with pooled expressed milk via tube feeding, which lacks time-of-day specificity. Despite growing interest in chrononutrition and circadian entrainment in the NICU, little is known about diurnal hormonal rhythms in preterm HM and their potential role in circadian development.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We investigated diurnal rhythmicity of cortisol and melatonin in human milk from mothers of very preterm infants (born before 30\u202fweeks gestational age) across different lactational stages. Milk series consisted of 13 to 17 (median 15) samples, collected over three consecutive days. Cortisol and melatonin concentrations were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) and rhythmicity was assessed using non-linear cosine curve fitting.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      In total, 25 milk series were included. Melatonin exhibited a clear diurnal rhythm in all 25 HM series, while cortisol showed rhythmicity in 18 out of 25 HM series. The mean peak time for melatonin occurred at 03:58 (AM)\u202f\u00b1\u202f1.46\u202fh; for cortisol, the mean peak time occurred at 08:29 (AM)\u202f\u00b1\u202f1.86\u202fh. There was no significant association between lactational stage and peak time or amplitude for either hormone. In a preliminary subgroup analysis, milk from mothers of female infants showed a significantly earlier cortisol peak compared to mothers of male infants (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f&amp;lt;\u202f0.01).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Despite the immaturity of the lactational system after very preterm birth, consistent diurnal variations in cortisol and melatonin were present across all lactational stages. These findings demonstrate that maternal hormonal rhythmicity is preserved in human milk from the earliest stages of preterm lactation, providing a biological rationale for further research into whether time-of-day matched feeding strategies may provide biologically relevant temporal signals that warrant investigation regarding their potential role in circadian entrainment in very preterm infants.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2026.1845043","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T04:27:51Z","timestamp":1781584071000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Diurnal rhythms in melatonin and cortisol in very preterm human milk"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Demy","family":"van Gilst","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Genetics, Erasmus University Medical Centre","place":["Rotterdam, Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jorine A.","family":"Roelants","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neonatology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University","place":["Utrecht, Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alja","family":"Bijlsma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division Preventive Youth Health Care, Public Health Services Region Utrecht (GGD Regio Utrecht)","place":["Utrecht, Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Irwin K. M.","family":"Reiss","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neonatal and Pediatric Intensive Care, Division of Neonatology, Erasmus MC Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, Erasmus University Medical Center","place":["Rotterdam, Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Koen F. M.","family":"Joosten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neonatal and Pediatric Intensive Care, Division of Pediatric Intensive Care, Erasmus MC Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, University Medical Center Rotterdam","place":["Rotterdam, Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeroen","family":"Dudink","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neonatology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University","place":["Utrecht, Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marijn J.","family":"Vermeulen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neonatal and Pediatric Intensive Care, Division of Neonatology, Erasmus MC Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, Erasmus University Medical Center","place":["Rotterdam, Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"In\u00eas","family":"Chaves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Genetics, Erasmus University Medical Centre","place":["Rotterdam, Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcl.2012.10.002","article-title":"Human milk composition: nutrients and bioactive factors","volume":"60","author":"Ballard","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pediatr Clin N Am"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2328","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12082328","article-title":"Circadian variation in human milk composition, a systematic review","volume":"12","author":"Italianer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151380","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semperi.2020.151380","article-title":"Human milk composition promotes optimal infant growth, development and health","volume":"45","author":"Perrella","year":"2021","journal-title":"Semin Perinatol"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"531571","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.531571","article-title":"Premature birth and developmental programming: mechanisms of resilience and vulnerability","volume":"11","author":"Lammertink","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Psych"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.115.120881","article-title":"Impact of maternal nutrition on breast-milk composition: a systematic review","volume":"104","author":"Bravi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2017.0048","article-title":"Macro- and micronutrients of human milk composition: are they related to maternal diet? A comprehensive systematic review","volume":"12","author":"Keikha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Breastfeed Med"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0233554","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0233554","article-title":"Human milk cortisol and immune factors over the first three postnatal months: relations to maternal psychosocial distress","volume":"15","author":"Aparicio","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.3109\/07420528.2015.1102149","article-title":"\"Chrono-functional milk\": the difference between melatonin concentrations in night-milk versus day-milk under different night illumination conditions","volume":"32","author":"Asher","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chronobiol Int"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2431-14-216","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of the nutrient content of preterm and term breast milk","volume":"14","author":"Gidrewicz","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMC Pediatr"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pedneo.2014.03.002","article-title":"Changes in preterm breast milk nutrient content in the first month","volume":"55","author":"Hsu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pediatr Neonatol"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17984","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-54530-2","article-title":"Variations in melatonin levels in preterm and term human breast milk during the first month after delivery","volume":"9","author":"Qin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2019.0141","article-title":"Comparison of changes in breast milk macronutrient content during the first month in preterm and term infants","volume":"15","author":"Sahin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Breastfeed Med"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcl.2012.09.008","article-title":"Human milk for the premature infant","volume":"60","author":"Underwood","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pediatr Clin N Am"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1719","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqab226","article-title":"Nutrient composition of preterm mother's milk and factors that influence nutrient content","volume":"114","author":"Gates","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3729","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15173729","article-title":"Circadian variation in human milk hormones and macronutrients","volume":"15","author":"Suwaydi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/s13006-020-00291-y","article-title":"Circadian changes in the composition of human milk macronutrients depending on pregnancy duration: a cross-sectional study","volume":"15","author":"Paulaviciene","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int Breastfeed J"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1226","DOI":"10.1080\/07420528.2024.2381599","article-title":"Biological clock and circadian rhythm of breast milk composition","volume":"41","author":"Akanalci","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chronobiol Int"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-060909-153128","article-title":"Central and peripheral circadian clocks in mammals","volume":"35","author":"Mohawk","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annu Rev Neurosci"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"R432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2016.04.011","article-title":"The circadian clock and human health","volume":"26","author":"Roenneberg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr Biol"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2014.78","article-title":"Circadian clock control of endocrine factors","volume":"10","author":"Gamble","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat Rev Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1080\/17446651.2017.1356222","article-title":"Developmental origins of the human hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis","volume":"12","author":"Howland","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-019-0368-x","article-title":"Human milk as \"chrononutrition\": implications for child health and development","volume":"85","author":"Hahn-Holbrook","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr Res"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2997","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-014-1579-2","article-title":"Extrapineal melatonin: sources, regulation, and potential functions","volume":"71","author":"Acuna-Castroviejo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Mol Life Sci"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1552-6909.2008.00299.x","article-title":"Infant sleep and feeding","volume":"37","author":"Rosen","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1356.028","article-title":"Mechanisms regulating melatonin synthesis in the mammalian pineal organ","volume":"1057","author":"Schomerus","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann N Y Acad Sci"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"867507","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.867507","article-title":"Breast milk and the importance of chrononutrition","volume":"9","author":"Caba-Flores","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Nutr"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6809","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22136809","article-title":"Melatonin in early nutrition: long-term effects on cardiovascular system","volume":"22","author":"Gombert","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2012.11.002","article-title":"Human milk cortisol is associated with infant temperament","volume":"38","author":"Grey","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"NP105","DOI":"10.1177\/0890334415625217","article-title":"Melatonin concentrations and antioxidative capacity of human breast milk according to gestational age and the time of day","volume":"32","author":"Katzer","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Hum Lact"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.112.2.373","article-title":"Developing circadian rhythmicity in infants","volume":"112","author":"Rivkees","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref31","first-page":"367","article-title":"Development of melatonin production in infants and the impact of prematurity","volume":"75","author":"Kennaway","year":"1992","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1053\/sper.2000.8598","article-title":"Developing circadian rhythmicity","volume":"24","author":"Rivkees","year":"2000","journal-title":"Semin Perinatol"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1243162","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2023.1243162","article-title":"Effects of the neonatal intensive care environment on circadian health and development of preterm infants","volume":"14","author":"van Gilst","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Physiol"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earlhumdev.2018.08.012","article-title":"The case for a chronobiological approach to neonatal care","volume":"126","author":"McKenna","year":"2018","journal-title":"Early Hum Dev"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"F539","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2013-304422","article-title":"Macronutrient content of donor human breast milk","volume":"98","author":"Cooper","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1080\/07420528.2019.1579734","article-title":"Gestational jet lag predisposes to later-life skeletal and cardiac disease","volume":"36","author":"Chaves","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chronobiol Int"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smrv.2012.08.003","article-title":"Shift work and cancer risk: potential mechanistic roles of circadian disruption, light at night, and sleep deprivation","volume":"17","author":"Haus","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sleep Med Rev"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s13098-020-0524-9","article-title":"Night shift work, short sleep and obesity","volume":"12","author":"Brum","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetol Metab Syndr"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.12621","article-title":"Meta-analysis on shift work and risks of specific obesity types","volume":"19","author":"Sun","year":"2018","journal-title":"Obes Rev"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.febslet.2011.03.021","article-title":"Circadian disruption and SCN control of energy metabolism","volume":"585","author":"Kalsbeek","year":"2011","journal-title":"FEBS Lett"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"i5210","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.i5210","article-title":"Health consequences of shift work and insufficient sleep","volume":"355","author":"Kecklund","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1309","DOI":"10.1093\/nutrit\/nuad122","article-title":"Chrononutrition and metabolic health in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"82","author":"Fiore","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nutr Rev"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2571","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24032571","article-title":"Chrono-nutrition: circadian rhythm and personalized nutrition","volume":"24","author":"Franzago","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2022.0125","article-title":"Preliminary exploration into the impact of mistimed expressed breast milk feeding on infant sleep outcomes, compared to other feeding patterns","volume":"17","author":"Booker","year":"2022","journal-title":"Breastfeed Med"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1422","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16101422","article-title":"Melatonin in human breast milk and its potential role in circadian entrainment: a nod towards chrononutrition?","volume":"16","author":"Hausler","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1208","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btz730","article-title":"CircaCompare: a method to estimate and statistically support differences in mesor, amplitude and phase, between circadian rhythms","volume":"36","author":"Parsons","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"965654","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.965654","article-title":"Glucocorticoids in preterm human milk","volume":"9","author":"Muelbert","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Nutr"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1608","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13051608","article-title":"The association between maternal stress and glucocorticoid rhythmicity in human milk","volume":"13","author":"Romijn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2174","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.116.236349","article-title":"Breast-milk cortisol and cortisone concentrations follow the diurnal rhythm of maternal hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity","volume":"146","author":"van der Voorn","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Nutr"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2006.10719526","article-title":"Circadian variations in fat content of expressed breast milk from mothers of preterm infants","volume":"25","author":"Lubetzky","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Am Coll Nutr"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2015.0053","article-title":"Circadian macronutrients variations over the first 7 weeks of human milk feeding of preterm infants","volume":"10","author":"Moran-Lev","year":"2015","journal-title":"Breastfeed Med"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1194","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10091194","article-title":"Sex-specific human milk composition: the role of infant sex in determining early life nutrition","volume":"10","author":"Galante","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2019.0205","article-title":"The role of infant sex on human milk composition","volume":"15","author":"Hosseini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Breastfeed Med"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104889","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2022.104889","article-title":"Effect of infant's gender and lactation period on biochemical and energy breast milk composition of lactating mothers from Algeria","volume":"115","author":"Khelouf","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Food Compos Anal"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1422","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17091422","article-title":"From mother-fetus dyad to mother-milk-infant triad: sex differences in macronutrient composition of breast milk","volume":"17","author":"Lithoxopoulou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.3109\/07420528.2012.719971","article-title":"Circadian typology: a comprehensive review","volume":"29","author":"Adan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chronobiol Int"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1038\/nature00965","article-title":"Coordination of circadian timing in mammals","volume":"418","author":"Reppert","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2023.0252","article-title":"Maternal circadian disruption from shift work and the impact on the concentration of melatonin in breast milk","volume":"19","author":"Booker","year":"2024","journal-title":"Breastfeed Med"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106680","DOI":"10.1016\/j.domaniend.2021.106680","article-title":"Circadian clocks and their role in lactation competence","volume":"78","author":"Casey","year":"2022","journal-title":"Domest Anim Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1677\/JOE-07-0378","article-title":"Circadian clocks: regulators of endocrine and metabolic rhythms","volume":"195","author":"Hastings","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2013.02.012","article-title":"Development of circadian rhythms: role of postnatal light environment","volume":"37","author":"Brooks","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2011.07.039","article-title":"Circadian rhythms in the fetus","volume":"349","author":"Seron-Ferre","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol Cell Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2023.0068","article-title":"High-temperature pasteurization used at donor breast Milk banks reduces melatonin levels in breast milk","volume":"18","author":"Booker","year":"2023","journal-title":"Breastfeed Med"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e20163440","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2016-3440","article-title":"Donor human milk for the high-risk infant: preparation, safety, and usage options in the United States","volume":"139","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2222","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.02222","article-title":"Effect of HTST and holder pasteurization on the concentration of immunoglobulins, growth factors, and hormones in donor human milk","volume":"9","author":"Escuder-Vieco","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1097\/MPG.0000000000001678","article-title":"Stability of cortisol and cortisone in human breast milk during holder pasteurization","volume":"65","author":"van der Voorn","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2011.02.003","article-title":"Circadian rhythm of adrenal glucocorticoid: its regulation and clinical implications","volume":"1812","author":"Chung","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biochim Biophys Acta"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1080\/14767050412331283102","article-title":"The effect of a single course of antenatal corticosteroids on maternal adrenal function at term","volume":"16","author":"McKenna","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med"},{"key":"ref69","volume-title":"Infant Formula: Evaluating the Safety of New Ingredients","year":"2004"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1097\/01.mpg.0000187817.38836.42","article-title":"Global standard for the composition of infant formula: recommendations of an ESPGHAN coordinated international expert group","volume":"41","author":"Koletzko","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr"},{"key":"ref71","first-page":"360","article-title":"Chrononutrition applied to formula milks to consolidate infants' sleep\/wake cycle","volume":"28","author":"Cubero","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuro Endocrinol Lett"},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106481","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earlhumdev.2026.106481","article-title":"Chrononutrition: 24-hour variation in macronutrients in very preterm human milk","volume":"215","author":"Bijlsma","year":"2026","journal-title":"Early Hum Dev"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Nutrition"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnut.2026.1845043\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T04:27:54Z","timestamp":1781584074000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnut.2026.1845043\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]]},"references-count":72,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fnut.2026.1845043"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnut.2026.1845043","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-861X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-861X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]]},"article-number":"1845043"}}