{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]],"date-time":"2026-08-07T15:16:14Z","timestamp":1786115774990,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,6]],"date-time":"2026-08-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785974400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Nutr."],"abstract":"\n Background<\/jats:title>\n Protein supplementation is frequently utilized in conjunction with resistance training for the purpose of enhancing muscle mass and strength. Nevertheless, the efficacy of different protein types, dosing thresholds, and population-specific effects is debatable.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Methods<\/jats:title>\n A systematic search was performed on PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, Cochrane CENTRAL, EMBASE databases through February 2026. RCTs comparing protein supplements (whey, casein, soy, pea, rice, milk, or blend) with placebo during supervised RT (\u22656\u202fweeks) were eligible. A Bayesian random-effects NMA was conducted using gemtc and JAGS. Dose\u2013response curves were fitted with restricted cubic splines. The protocol was registered on PROSPERO (CRD420261340515).<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Results<\/jats:title>\n \n Thirty-six RCTs (1,552 participants; 89 trial arms) formed a fully connected network of eight nodes. For LBM, whey protein ranked first (SUCRA\u202f=\u202f0.91; MD vs. placebo: +1.24\u202fkg, 95% CrI 0.61\u20131.87), followed by milk (SUCRA\u202f=\u202f0.78; +1.18\u202fkg) and casein (SUCRA\u202f=\u202f0.72; +0.92\u202fkg). The dose\u2013response curve for whey indicated a plateau at 30\u201335\u202fg\/d. In older adults (\u226565\u202fyears), the superiority of whey narrowed (SUCRA\u202f=\u202f0.89 vs. 0.92 in younger adults), while casein\u2019s SUCRA increased from 0.68 in younger adults to 0.76 in older adults. However, this subgroup analysis was based on only nine trials, and the observed ranking changes may be unstable. Model convergence was satisfactory (\n \n \n \n \n R<\/mml:mi>\n \u0302<\/mml:mo>\n <\/mml:mrow>\n \u0302<\/mml:mo>\n <\/mml:mover>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n \u202f=\u202f1.01; ESS\u202f=\u202f3,420), and node-splitting detected no significant inconsistency (all\n p<\/jats:italic>\n \u202f&gt;\u202f0.10).\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n Among commonly available protein supplements, whey protein at approximately 30\u201335\u202fg\/d was associated with the largest gains in lean body mass when combined with RT, although this dose\u2013response estimate is exploratory. Older adults may benefit from casein- or mixed-protein strategies as the advantage of whey is diminished in this population. Plant-based proteins showed smaller effect estimates than dairy-derived proteins, but the evidence certainty was low to very low and the credible intervals were wide, limiting firm conclusions.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Systematic review registration<\/jats:title>\n Identifier: CRD420261340515.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2026.1860234","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,6]],"date-time":"2026-08-06T05:31:49Z","timestamp":1785994309000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Dose\u2013structure\u2013population interactions of protein supplementation combined with resistance training on body composition: a Bayesian network meta-analysis with dose\u2013response modeling"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Yunxia","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physical Education, Shandong Sport University","place":["Rizhao, Shandong, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gang","family":"Qin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Sports, Hanyang University","place":["Seoul, Republic of Korea"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ziyu","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Sports, Sejong University","place":["Seoul, Republic of Korea"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jinghao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physical Education Department, Shandong Technology and Business University","place":["Yantai, Shandong, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S29","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2011.619204","article-title":"Dietary protein for athletes: from requirements to optimum adaptation","volume":"29","author":"Phillips","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Sports Sci"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000000852","article-title":"Joint position statement: nutrition and athletic performance","volume":"48","year":"2016","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1097\/MCO.0b013e3282fa17fb","article-title":"Leucine-enriched nutrients and the regulation of mammalian target of rapamycin signalling and human skeletal muscle protein synthesis","volume":"11","author":"Drummond","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-7075-9-40","article-title":"Nutritional regulation of muscle protein synthesis with resistance exercise: strategies to enhance anabolism","volume":"9","author":"Churchward-Venne","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutr Metab"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s12970-017-0177-8","article-title":"International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: protein and exercise","volume":"14","author":"J\u00e4ger","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Int Soc Sports Nutr"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1454","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.112.037556","article-title":"Protein supplementation augments the adaptive response of skeletal muscle to resistance-type exercise training: a meta-analysis","volume":"96","author":"Cermak","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2017-097608","article-title":"A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults","volume":"52","author":"Morton","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-015-0403-y","article-title":"Effects of whey protein alone or as part of a multi-ingredient formulation on strength, fat-free mass, or lean body mass in resistance-trained individuals: a meta-analysis","volume":"46","author":"Naclerio","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s12970-018-0215-1","article-title":"How much protein can the body use in a single meal for muscle-building? 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