{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T06:05:09Z","timestamp":1785305109789,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785283200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Nutr."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Bisphenol A (BPA) and its structural analogs, bisphenol F (BPF) and bisphenol S (BPS), are widely used in consumer products and increasingly detected in children. Although BPA has been linked to diabetes and impaired glucose metabolism in adults, evidence for BPF and BPS, particularly in the pediatric population, remains limited and inconsistent. This study examined the associations of individual and combined bisphenol exposures with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) risk and glucose homeostasis in children.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We conducted a case\u2013control study including 122 children with T1DM and 287 controls from Shenyang, China. For biomarker analysis, a subset of 110 participants (55 cases and 55 controls) was selected. Urinary bisphenol concentrations were measured using high-performance liquid chromatography\u2013tandem mass spectrometry. Associations with T1DM risk and glycemic outcomes were evaluated using multivariable logistic and linear regression models. Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) and Restricted cubic spline (RCS) analyses were further used to explore potential nonlinear relationships and interaction effects.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      BPA was detected in all samples, with widespread exposure to BPF and BPS. Higher urinary BPA and BPF levels were significantly associated with increased odds of T1DM. BPS was not associated with T1DM status but was consistently linked to elevated fasting glucose (\n                      <jats:italic>\u03b2<\/jats:italic>\n                      =\u202f0.987, 95% CI: 0.104\u20131.871) and HbA1c (\n                      <jats:italic>\u03b2<\/jats:italic>\n                      =\u202f0.327, 95% CI: 0.012\u20130.642). BKMR characterized the joint associations of bisphenol mixtures with the study outcomes, whereas RCS analyses suggested near-linear exposure\u2013response relationships between BPS and glycemic traits. Exploratory interaction analyses suggested heterogeneity in selected associations by sex and case\u2013control status.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Higher urinary concentrations of BPA and BPF were associated with increased odds of T1DM in children, while BPS was linked to markers of impaired glucose regulation. These findings suggest that BPA substitutes may not be biologically inert and could be relevant to metabolic health during childhood. Further prospective and mechanistic studies are needed to better understand the biological pathways underlying these associations.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2026.1880074","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T05:57:56Z","timestamp":1785304676000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Urinary bisphenol exposure and risk of type 1 diabetes and glycemic traits in Chinese children: a case\u2013control study"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Min","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University","place":["Shenyang, China"]},{"name":"Department of Maternal, Child and Adolescent Health, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang North New Area","place":["Shenyang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinying","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University","place":["Shenyang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yijie","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Maternal, Child and Adolescent Health, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang North New Area","place":["Shenyang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shi","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University","place":["Shenyang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ying","family":"Xin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University","place":["Shenyang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiarong","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Maternal, Child and Adolescent Health, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang North New Area","place":["Shenyang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yangfan","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Maternal, Child and Adolescent Health, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang North New Area","place":["Shenyang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhongyi","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Maternal, Child and Adolescent Health, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang North New Area","place":["Shenyang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lingling","family":"Zhai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Maternal, Child and Adolescent Health, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang North New Area","place":["Shenyang, China"]},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Environmental Stress and Chronic Disease Control and Prevention, Ministry of Education, China Medical University","place":["Shenyang, Liaoning, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lihong","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Maternal, Child and Adolescent Health, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang North New Area","place":["Shenyang, China"]},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Environmental Stress and Chronic Disease Control and Prevention, Ministry of Education, China Medical University","place":["Shenyang, Liaoning, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(23)00025-6","article-title":"Trends in incidence of youth-onset type 1 and type 2 diabetes in the USA, 2002-18: results from the population-based SEARCH for diabetes in youth study","volume":"11","author":"Wagenknecht","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.1111\/dme.13010","article-title":"Rapidly rising incidence of type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents aged 0-19 years in Zhejiang, China, 2007 to 2013","volume":"33","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Diabet Med"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina59040668","article-title":"Changes in the global epidemiology of type 1 diabetes in an evolving landscape of environmental factors: causes, challenges, and opportunities","volume":"59","author":"Ogrotis","year":"2023","journal-title":"Medicina"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"j5295","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.j5295","article-title":"Incidence of type 1 diabetes in China, 2010-13: population based study","volume":"360","author":"Weng","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1007\/s00592-014-0590-2","article-title":"Rapidly rising incidence of childhood type 1 diabetes in Chinese population: epidemiology in Shanghai during 1997-2011","volume":"51","author":"Zhao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Diabetol"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1097\/MOP.0000000000001366","article-title":"The increase in diabetes in children from underdeveloped countries","volume":"36","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr Opin 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Int"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"tfae093","DOI":"10.1093\/toxres\/tfae093","article-title":"The potential association of bisphenol a exposure and type 1 diabetes mellitus among Dakahlia governorate's children sample, Egypt","volume":"13","author":"El-Degwi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Toxicol Res"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2937","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21082937","article-title":"Endocrine disrupting chemicals and type 1 diabetes","volume":"21","author":"Predieri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1083","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-019-02419-4","article-title":"Bisphenol a alteration of type 1 diabetes in non-obese diabetic (NOD) female mice is dependent on window of exposure","volume":"93","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arch Toxicol"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kft242","article-title":"Transmaternal bisphenol a exposure accelerates diabetes type 1 development in NOD mice","volume":"137","author":"Bodin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxicol Sci"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.3109\/08923973.2013.772195","article-title":"Long-term bisphenol a exposure accelerates insulitis development in diabetes-prone NOD mice","volume":"35","author":"Bodin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1080\/1547691X.2017.1334722","article-title":"Bisphenol a (BPA) aggravates multiple low-dose streptozotocin-induced type 1 diabetes in C57BL\/6 mice","volume":"14","author":"Cetkovic-Cvrlje","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Immunotoxicol"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2018.06.1071","article-title":"Bisphenol a and octylphenol exacerbate type 1 diabetes mellitus by disrupting calcium homeostasis in mouse pancreas","volume":"295","author":"Ahn","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxicol Lett"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1515\/jpem-2018-0141","article-title":"Urinary bisphenol-a levels in children with type 1 diabetes mellitus","volume":"31","author":"Ince","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5438","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5b05387","article-title":"Bisphenol analogues other than BPA: environmental occurrence, human exposure, and toxicity-a review","volume":"50","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ Sci Technol"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1408989","article-title":"Bisphenol S and F: a systematic review and comparison of the hormonal activity of bisphenol a substitutes","volume":"123","author":"Rochester","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114623","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2025.114623","article-title":"Estimation of BPA, BPS, and BPF exposure levels in the general Korean population using the physiologically-based toxicokinetic model and human urinary biomonitoring for risk assessment","volume":"269","author":"Kim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int J Hyg Environ Health"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics7020035","article-title":"Bisphenol S modulates type 1 diabetes development in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice with diet- and sex-related effects","volume":"7","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Toxics."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2021.06.001","article-title":"Behavioral changes and hyperglycemia in NODEF mice following bisphenol S exposure are affected by diets","volume":"85","author":"McDonough","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107926","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2023.107926","article-title":"Occurrence of multiple bisphenol S analogues in children from Shantou, China","volume":"174","author":"Pan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ Int"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107013","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP5159","article-title":"Exposure to bisphenol a and bisphenol S and incident type 2 diabetes: a case-cohort study in the French cohort D.E.S.I.R","volume":"127","author":"Ranciere","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2022.113201","article-title":"Bisphenol F suppresses insulin-stimulated glucose metabolism in adipocytes by inhibiting IRS-1\/PI3K\/AKT pathway","volume":"231","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol Environ Saf"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S19","DOI":"10.2337\/dc23-S002","article-title":"Classification and diagnosis of diabetes: standards of care in diabetes-2023","volume":"46","author":"ElSayed","year":"2023","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112987","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2021.112987","article-title":"Prenatal exposure to bisphenols, immune responses in cord blood and infantile eczema: a nested prospective cohort study in China","volume":"228","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol Environ Saf"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics11090761","article-title":"Exposure to bisphenol a and its analogs among Thai school-age children","volume":"11","author":"Numsriskulrat","year":"2023","journal-title":"Toxics"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2023.117187","article-title":"Environment-wide association study to identify exposure pathways of bisphenol a in Korean children and adolescents: Korean National Environmental Health Survey (KoNEHS) 2018-2020","volume":"238","author":"Shin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2020.126340","article-title":"Urinary bisphenol a concentrations and adiposity measures at age 7 years in a prospective birth cohort","volume":"251","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2018.03.031","article-title":"Urinary bisphenol analogues and triclosan in children from South China and implications for human exposure","volume":"238","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ Pollut"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1080\/09603123.2018.1515896","article-title":"Association of exposure to bisphenol a with obesity and cardiometabolic risk factors in children and adolescents","volume":"29","author":"Amin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int J Environ Health Res"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6523","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.8b00824","article-title":"Exposure to bisphenol a, bisphenol F, and bisphenol S in U.S. adults and children: the National Health and nutrition examination survey 2013-2014","volume":"3","author":"Lehmler","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2019.00262","article-title":"Exposure to bisphenol a substitutes and gestational diabetes mellitus: a prospective cohort study in China","volume":"10","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2011-1050","article-title":"Hormones and endocrine-disrupting chemicals: low-dose effects and nonmonotonic dose responses","volume":"33","author":"Vandenberg","year":"2012","journal-title":"Endocr Rev"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1591","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-019-4898-x","article-title":"Urinary bisphenol a concentration and glucose homeostasis in non-diabetic adults: a repeated-measures, longitudinal study","volume":"62","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetologia"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Nutrition"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnut.2026.1880074\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T05:57:56Z","timestamp":1785304676000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnut.2026.1880074\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]]},"references-count":36,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fnut.2026.1880074"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnut.2026.1880074","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-861X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-861X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]]},"article-number":"1880074"}}