{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T05:57:08Z","timestamp":1790575028139,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790553600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Nutr."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to investigate the effects of exercise snacks (ES) on cardiorespiratory fitness, body composition, metabolic health, and muscle strength in sedentary individuals.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>From database inception to February 5, 2026, four international databases (PubMed, Web of Science, SciELO, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials) and one Chinese database (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) were searched. The GRADE approach was used to assess the certainty of evidence, while the Cochrane Risk of Bias tools (RoB 2) and Risk of Bias In Non-randomized Studies of Intervention (ROBINS-I) were applied to evaluate the quality of randomized controlled trials and non-randomized studies, respectively. The pooled effects of study outcomes were estimated using a random-effects model based on meta-analysis. Subgroup analyses and meta-regression were conducted to explore potential moderating variables.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A total of 22 studies involving 994 participants were included. The meta-analysis showed that ES significantly improved VO\n                      <jats:sub>2max<\/jats:sub>\n                      (Hedges\u2019 g\u202f=\u202f1.24, 95% CI: 0.53 to 1.95,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f&amp;lt;\u202f0.001, I\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      \u202f=\u202f75.0%, \u03c4\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      \u202f=\u202f1.13), VO\n                      <jats:sub>2peak<\/jats:sub>\n                      (Hedges\u2019 g\u202f=\u202f0.63, 95% CI: 0.05 to 1.22,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f&amp;lt;\u202f0.05, I\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      \u202f=\u202f55.0%, \u03c4\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      \u202f=\u202f0.19), triglycerides (Hedges\u2019 g\u202f=\u202f1.05, 95% CI: 0.05 to 2.06,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f&amp;lt;\u202f0.05, I\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      \u202f=\u202f84.0%, \u03c4\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      \u202f=\u202f0.65), and blood glucose (Hedges\u2019 g\u202f=\u202f\u22120.83, 95% CI: \u22121.51 to \u22120.15,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f&amp;lt;\u202f0.05, I\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      \u202f=\u202f78.0%, \u03c4\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      \u202f=\u202f0.69) in sedentary populations. However, significant publication bias was detected for VO\n                      <jats:sub>2max<\/jats:sub>\n                      , and the trim-and-fill analysis yielded an adjusted effect estimate that was no longer statistically significant (Hedges\u2019 g\u202f=\u202f0.62, 95% CI: \u22120.59 to 1.83,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f0.32). No significant differences were observed in body fat, muscle mass, strength, or insulin levels.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      As a short-duration, high-frequency intervention, ES may improve cardiorespiratory fitness and certain metabolic health indicators in sedentary individuals. However, the finding for VO\n                      <jats:sub>2max<\/jats:sub>\n                      should be interpreted cautiously because the trim-and-fill adjusted estimate was not statistically significant, suggesting that publication bias may have influenced the observed effect. It provides a potentially sustainable and effective exercise intervention strategy for sedentary individuals.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Systematic review registration<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>PROSPERO (CRD420261347411).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2026.1883923","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T05:44:03Z","timestamp":1790574243000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The effect of exercise snacks on cardiorespiratory fitness, body composition, metabolic health, and muscle strength in sedentary individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Kai","family":"Qi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Sport and Brain Health, Nanjing Sport Institute","place":["Nanjing, China"]},{"name":"Gdansk University of Physical Education and Sport","place":["Gdansk, Poland"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qiyi","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Sport and Brain Health, Nanjing Sport Institute","place":["Nanjing, China"]},{"name":"College of Physical Education, Yangzhou University","place":["Yangzhou, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Decheng","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Sport and Brain Health, Nanjing Sport Institute","place":["Nanjing, China"]},{"name":"College of Physical Education, Yangzhou University","place":["Yangzhou, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adam","family":"Kawczy\u0144ski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Wroc\u0142aw University of Science and Technology","place":["Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aiguo","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Sport and Brain Health, Nanjing Sport Institute","place":["Nanjing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arteri.2019.04.004","article-title":"Sedentary lifestyle a disease from xxi century. Sedentarismo, la enfermedad del siglo xxi","volume":"31","author":"Arocha Rodulfo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin Investig Arterioscler"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2026.115297","article-title":"Effects of physical activity and sedentary behavior on cardiovascular disease and respiratory diseases","volume":"310","author":"Li","year":"2026","journal-title":"Physiol Behav"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2025.115214","article-title":"Moderating effects of physical activity intensity and sedentary break patterns on the association between sedentary time and cardiometabolic risk in older adults","volume":"306","author":"Freire","year":"2026","journal-title":"Physiol Behav"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.3390\/nu18050730","article-title":"Family affluence and lifestyle behaviors as determinants of fat mass index in university students: a sex-specific structural equation modeling approach","volume":"18","author":"Domaradzki","year":"2026","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103506","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msksp.2026.103506","article-title":"Association between pain catastrophizing and sarcopenia in patients with knee osteoarthritis: a cross-sectional study","volume":"82","author":"Liang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Musculoskelet Sci Pract"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1302","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)30370-1","article-title":"Does physical activity attenuate, or even eliminate, the detrimental association of sitting time with mortality? A harmonised meta-analysis of data from more than 1 million men and women","volume":"388","author":"Ekelund","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet (London, England)"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2020-102955","article-title":"World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour","volume":"54","author":"Bull","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.051351","article-title":"Health benefits of physical activity: the evidence","volume":"174","author":"Warburton","year":"2006","journal-title":"CMAJ"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E150","DOI":"10.15167\/2421-4248\/jpmh2022.63.2S3.2756","article-title":"Physical activity for health","volume":"63","author":"Dhuli","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Prev Med Hyg"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33972","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-11076-w","article-title":"Effects of resistance training and aerobic training on improving the composition of middle-aged adults with obesity in an interventional study","volume":"15","author":"Hang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1007\/s10522-016-9641-0","article-title":"Physical activity in older age: perspectives for healthy ageing and frailty","volume":"17","author":"McPhee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biogerontology"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1097\/CRD.0000000000000417","article-title":"Exercise, physical activity, and Cardiometabolic health: pathophysiologic insights","volume":"30","author":"Belanger","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cardiol Rev"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jesf.2022.10.004","article-title":"Results from the China 2022 report card on physical activity for children and adolescents","volume":"21","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Exerc Sci Fit"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7201","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18137201","article-title":"Evidence-based effects of high-intensity interval training on exercise capacity and health: a review with historical perspective","volume":"18","author":"Atakan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"ref15","first-page":"60","article-title":"An 'exercise snack' plan","volume":"149","author":"Hartley","year":"2007","journal-title":"Newsweek"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1249\/JES.0000000000000275","article-title":"Exercise snacks: a novel strategy to improve Cardiometabolic health","volume":"50","author":"Islam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Exerc Sport Sci Rev"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4691","DOI":"10.1113\/JP284985","article-title":"Benefits beyond cardiometabolic health: the potential of frequent high intensity 'exercise snacks' to improve outcomes for those living with and beyond cancer","volume":"601","author":"Jenkins","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Physiol"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/7516939","article-title":"Exercise snacking to improve muscle function in healthy older adults: a pilot study","volume":"2019","author":"Perkin","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Aging Res"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1203","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-019-04110-z","article-title":"Sprint exercise snacks: a novel approach to increase aerobic fitness","volume":"119","author":"Little","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur J Appl Physiol"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1437","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-014-3244-6","article-title":"'Exercise snacks' before meals: a novel strategy to improve glycaemic control in individuals with insulin resistance","volume":"57","author":"Francois","year":"2014","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smhs.2024.02.006","article-title":"Exercise snacks and physical fitness in sedentary populations","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sports Med Health Sci"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1139\/apnm-2018-0675","article-title":"Do stair climbing exercise \"snacks\" improve cardiorespiratory fitness?","volume":"44","author":"Jenkins","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl Physiol Nutr Metab"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1113\/JP276849","article-title":"Physiological basis of brief vigorous exercise to improve health","volume":"598","author":"Gibala","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Physiol"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e70117","DOI":"10.1111\/sms.70117","article-title":"Technology-enabled exercise \"snacks\" are feasible to perform in a real-world setting: a randomized controlled trial","volume":"35","author":"Babir","year":"2025","journal-title":"Scand J Med Sci Sports"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103902","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2025.103902","article-title":"Effect of brief intense stair climbing on cardiorespiratory fitness and metabolic risk factors in inactive young men with obesity: a randomized controlled trial","volume":"35","author":"Han","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00106.2022","article-title":"Walking or body weight squat \"activity snacks\" increase dietary amino acid utilization for myofibrillar protein synthesis during prolonged sitting","volume":"133","author":"Moore","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Appl Physiol"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/2046-4053-4-1","article-title":"Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement","volume":"4","author":"Moher","year":"2015","journal-title":"Syst Rev"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1136\/emermed-2020-209567","article-title":"Population, intervention, comparison, outcomes and study (PICOS) design as a framework to formulate eligibility criteria in systematic reviews","volume":"37","author":"Amir-Behghadami","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg Med J"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470712184","volume-title":"Cochrane Handbook for systematic Reviews of Interventions","author":"Higgins","year":"2008"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"ED000142","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.ED000142","article-title":"Updated guidance for trusted systematic reviews: a new edition of the Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions","volume":"10","author":"Cumpston","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"l4898","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.l4898","article-title":"RoB 2: a revised tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials","volume":"366","author":"Sterne","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ (Clinical research ed)"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"i4919","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.i4919","article-title":"ROBINS-I: a tool for assessing risk of bias in non-randomised studies of interventions","volume":"355","author":"Sterne","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMJ (Clinical research ed.)"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2010.04.026","article-title":"GRADE guidelines: 1. Introduction-GRADE evidence profiles and summary of findings tables","volume":"64","author":"Guyatt","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Clin Epidemiol"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1136\/ebmental-2018-300014","article-title":"Ten simple rules for conducting umbrella reviews","volume":"21","author":"Fusar-Poli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Evid Based Ment Health"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v036.i03","article-title":"Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package","volume":"36","author":"Viechtbauer","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Stat Softw"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajodo.2020.07.002","article-title":"Exploring heterogeneity in meta-analysis: meta-regression analysis","volume":"158","author":"Spineli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119536604.ch10","volume-title":"Cochrane Handbook for systematic Reviews of Interventions","author":"Deeks","year":"2019"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1177\/1474515120944014","article-title":"Meta-analysis: how to quantify and explain heterogeneity?","volume":"19","author":"Ruppar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur J Cardiovasc Nurs"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1507\/endocrj.EJ24-0377","article-title":"Effects of breaking up prolonged sitting via exercise snacks intervention on the body composition and plasma metabolomics of sedentary obese adults: a randomized controlled trial","volume":"72","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Endocr J"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1123\/jpah.2023-0308","article-title":"Effects of breaking up sedentary behavior with short bouts of yoga and tai-chi on glycemia, concentration, and well-being","volume":"21","author":"Colvin","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Phys Act Health"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1347825","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2024.1347825","article-title":"Resistance exercise snacks improve muscle mass in female university employees: a prospective, controlled, intervention pilot-study","volume":"12","author":"Brandt","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.3390\/sports13060186","article-title":"The influence of workplace-integrated exercise snacks on cognitive performance in sedentary middle-aged adults-a randomized pilot study","volume":"13","author":"Mues","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sports (Basel, Switzerland)"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0154075","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0154075","article-title":"Twelve weeks of Sprint interval training improves indices of Cardiometabolic health similar to traditional endurance training despite a five-fold lower exercise volume and time commitment","volume":"11","author":"Gillen","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18020603","article-title":"Home-based stair climbing as an intervention for disease risk in adult females; a controlled study","volume":"18","author":"Michael","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-020-02592-6","article-title":"Low-volume high-intensity interval training improves cardiometabolic health, work ability and well-being in severely obese individuals: a randomized-controlled trial sub-study","volume":"18","author":"Reljic","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Transl Med"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2002.001131","article-title":"Training effects of short bouts of stair climbing on cardiorespiratory fitness, blood lipids, and homocysteine in sedentary young women","volume":"39","author":"Boreham","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2767","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-011-2254-z","article-title":"Towards the minimal amount of exercise for improving metabolic health: beneficial effects of reduced-exertion high-intensity interval training","volume":"112","author":"Metcalfe","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur J Appl Physiol"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1006\/pmed.2000.0634","article-title":"Training effects of accumulated daily stair-climbing exercise in previously sedentary young women","volume":"30","author":"Boreham","year":"2000","journal-title":"Prev Med"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"920","DOI":"10.1139\/apnm-2023-0593","article-title":"Exercise snacks are a time-efficient alternative to moderate-intensity continuous training for improving cardiorespiratory fitness but not maximal fat oxidation in inactive adults: a randomized controlled trial","volume":"49","author":"Yin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl Physiol Nutr Metab"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0210447","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0210447","article-title":"The effect of 2 walking programs on aerobic fitness, body composition, and physical activity in sedentary office employees","volume":"14","author":"Rodriguez-Hernandez","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13219","DOI":"10.1111\/ijcp.13219","article-title":"Effects of a short-term interval aerobic training programme with active recovery bouts (IATP-R) on cognitive and mental health, functional performance and quality of life: a randomised controlled trial in sedentary seniors","volume":"73","author":"Bouaziz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int J Clin Pract"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"200439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jesf.2025.200439","article-title":"Exercise improves physical function in young women with functional ankle instability: a randomized controlled trial of 8-week structured high-intensity circuit training on balance, ankle function, and physical fitness","volume":"24","author":"Liao","year":"2026","journal-title":"J Exerc Sci Fit"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.7570\/jomes23024","article-title":"Effect of short bouts of vigorous stair climbing on cardiorespiratory fitness in women with overweight and obesity: a pilot feasibility study","volume":"32","author":"Yun","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Obes Metab Syndr"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2006.06.002","article-title":"Very short intermittent vs continuous bouts of activity in sedentary adults","volume":"43","author":"Macfarlane","year":"2006","journal-title":"Prev Med"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-026-26484-4","article-title":"Micro-exercise breaks every hour: a feasible strategy to improve metabolic health in sedentary office workers","volume":"26","author":"Fang","year":"2026","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e127","DOI":"10.2196\/jmir.2340","article-title":"Cardiovascular health effects of internet-based encouragements to do daily workplace stair-walks: randomized controlled trial","volume":"15","author":"Andersen","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Med Internet Res"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1511","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-016-3409-8","article-title":"Exercise training comprising of single 20-s cycle sprints does not provide a sufficient stimulus for improving maximal aerobic capacity in sedentary individuals","volume":"116","author":"Songsorn","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur J Appl Physiol"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.01063.2016","article-title":"Measurement of the maximum oxygen uptake V\u0307o2max: V\u0307o2peak is no longer acceptable","volume":"122","author":"Poole","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Appl Physiol"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1097\/00005768-200001000-00012","article-title":"Limiting factors for maximum oxygen uptake and determinants of endurance performance","volume":"32","author":"Bassett","year":"2000","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2025-110027","article-title":"Effect of exercise snacks on fitness and cardiometabolic health in physically inactive individuals: systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"60","author":"Rodr\u00edguez","year":"2026","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/cphy.c140080","article-title":"Cardiovascular adaptations to exercise training","volume":"6","author":"Hellsten","year":"2015","journal-title":"Compr Physiol"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1249\/JES.0000000000000106","article-title":"Sedentary behavior and cardiovascular disease risk: mediating mechanisms","volume":"45","author":"Carter","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exerc Sport Sci Rev"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-018-0380-1","article-title":"Sedentary behaviour and risk of all-cause, cardiovascular and cancer mortality, and incident type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and dose response meta-analysis","volume":"33","author":"Patterson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur J Epidemiol"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2023-107849","article-title":"Cardiorespiratory fitness is a strong and consistent predictor of morbidity and mortality among adults: an overview of meta-analyses representing over 20.9 million observations from 199 unique cohort studies","volume":"58","author":"Lang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2023-106807","article-title":"Resistance training prescription for muscle strength and hypertrophy in healthy adults: a systematic review and Bayesian network meta-analysis","volume":"57","author":"Currier","year":"2023","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2293","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0b013e31823a3e2d","article-title":"Concurrent training: a meta-analysis examining interference of aerobic and resistance exercises","volume":"26","author":"Wilson","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Strength Cond Res"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1111\/sms.13616","article-title":"Consequences of physical inactivity in older adults: a systematic review of reviews and meta-analyses","volume":"30","author":"Cunningham","year":"2020","journal-title":"Scand J Med Sci Sports"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"H76","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00708.2019","article-title":"The effects of exercise training on lipid metabolism and coronary heart disease","volume":"319","author":"Muscella","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.2337\/dc15-2336","article-title":"Benefits for type 2 diabetes of interrupting prolonged sitting with brief bouts of light walking or simple resistance activities","volume":"39","author":"Dempsey","year":"2016","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S21","DOI":"10.1038\/oby.2009.384","article-title":"Exercise training, lipid regulation, and insulin action: a tangled web of cause and effect","author":"Kraus","year":"2009","journal-title":"Obesity (Silver Spring, Md)"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00474.2005","article-title":"Exercise and improved insulin sensitivity in older women: evidence of the enduring benefits of higher intensity training","volume":"100","author":"DiPietro","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Appl Physiol"},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.2165\/00007256-200737020-00004","article-title":"The adaptations to strength training: morphological and neurological contributions to increased strength","volume":"37","author":"Folland","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1206","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000002585","article-title":"Resistance training load effects on muscle hypertrophy and strength gain: systematic review and network Meta-analysis","volume":"53","author":"Lopez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5209","DOI":"10.1113\/JP272472","article-title":"Resistance training-induced changes in integrated myofibrillar protein synthesis are related to hypertrophy only after attenuation of muscle damage","volume":"594","author":"Damas","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Physiol"},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1186\/s12893-026-03666-w","article-title":"Mitigating occupational hazards: the impact of physical activity on surgeons' physical and mental health - a scoping review","volume":"26","author":"Qi","year":"2026","journal-title":"BMC Surg"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Nutrition"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnut.2026.1883923\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T05:44:05Z","timestamp":1790574245000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnut.2026.1883923\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]]},"references-count":75,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fnut.2026.1883923"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnut.2026.1883923","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-861X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-861X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]]},"article-number":"1883923"}}