{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T14:05:09Z","timestamp":1790345109645,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":109,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790294400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Nutr."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Adolescence constitutes a pivotal developmental phase for the enhancement of musculoskeletal and metabolic wellbeing, as well as neurodevelopment, during which specific exercise regimens and nutritional interventions can precipitate enduring physiological transformations. Although aerobic exercise has conventionally been linked to enhancements in cardiovascular fitness and metabolic control, the confluence of this form of exercise with anabolic and ergogenic supplements, including whey protein and creatine, in adolescent populations has not been extensively investigated. This narrative review examines current evidence on aerobic exercise, whey protein, and creatine in adolescents, with particular emphasis on exercise performance, recovery, immunometabolic adaptation, and muscle\u2013bone\u2013brain crosstalk. A narrative literature search was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar using combinations of terms related to aerobic exercise, whey protein, creatine, adolescents, exercise performance, recovery, immunometabolism, and muscle\u2013bone\u2013brain signaling. Relevant peer-reviewed studies published from database inception to May 2026 were considered, with emphasis on adolescent human studies and selected mechanistic evidence from experimental and adult populations when directly relevant to biological interpretation. Aerobic exercise promotes oxidative metabolic processes, mitochondrial functionality, and endurance performance, thereby enhancing mitochondrial biogenesis and metabolic flexibility. Whey protein supplies critical amino acids that incite muscle protein turnover and modulate pivotal signaling cascades, thereby supporting muscle remodeling and recovery. Creatine, in addition to its function in the swift regeneration of adenosine triphosphate, plays a significant role in cellular hydration, the preservation of mitochondrial integrity, and the maintenance of antioxidant defense mechanisms, while also potentially influencing brain energy metabolism and brain-derived neurotrophic factor-mediated neuroplasticity. Emerging evidence further suggests that exercise and nutritional interventions may influence inflammatory mediators, myokines, osteokines, and neurotrophic pathways involved in muscle\u2013bone\u2013brain communication. However, mechanistic evidence is frequently derived from animal or non-adolescent human studies, and direct evidence for combined interventions in adolescents remains limited. Overall, aerobic exercise, whey protein, and creatine may have complementary roles in supporting exercise performance, recovery, and metabolic adaptation during adolescence, although further well-controlled adolescent studies are needed to establish their long-term efficacy, safety, and optimal use.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2026.1915252","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T13:37:59Z","timestamp":1790343479000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Aerobic exercise, whey protein, and creatine in adolescents: implications for performance, recovery, immunometabolic adaptation, and muscle\u2013bone\u2013brain crosstalk"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Kun","family":"Qin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Physical Education, Beihua University, Jilin City","place":["Jilin, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Physical Education, Beihua University, Jilin City","place":["Jilin, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S158","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114512002516","article-title":"Dietary protein requirements and adaptive advantages in athletes.","volume":"108","author":"Phillips","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br J Nutr"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1080\/0264041031000140554","article-title":"Protein and amino acids for athletes.","volume":"22","author":"Tipton","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Sports Sci"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S73","DOI":"10.1080\/02640410701607338","article-title":"Nutrition for the young athlete.","volume":"25","author":"Meyer","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Sports Sci"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.2014-0031","article-title":"Sports Dietitians Australia position statement: sports nutrition for the adolescent athlete.","volume":"24","author":"Desbrow","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S71","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-014-0152-3","article-title":"A brief review of critical processes in exercise-induced muscular hypertrophy.","volume":"44","author":"Phillips","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2017-097608","article-title":"A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults.","volume":"52","author":"Morton","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1186\/1550-2783-4-6","article-title":"International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: creatine supplementation and exercise.","volume":"4","author":"Buford","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Int Soc Sports Nutr"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1519\/1533-4287(2003)017<0822:eocsar>2.0.co;2","article-title":"Effects of creatine supplementation and resistance training on muscle strength and weightlifting performance.","volume":"17","author":"Rawson","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Strength Cond Res"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13020664","article-title":"Creatine supplementation in children and adolescents.","volume":"13","author":"Jagim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/0020-711x(91)90193-q","article-title":"Biochemical adaptation of cardiac and skeletal muscle to physical activity.","volume":"23","author":"Turcotte","year":"1991","journal-title":"Int J Biochem"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1038\/s41580-023-00606-x","article-title":"Exercise metabolism and adaptation in skeletal muscle.","volume":"24","author":"Smith","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2015.00245","article-title":"Nutritional interventions to augment resistance training-induced skeletal muscle hypertrophy.","volume":"6","author":"Morton","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front Physiol"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022465203458","article-title":"Effects of creatine supplementation on performance and training adaptations.","volume":"244","author":"Kreider","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mol Cell Biochem."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2012.12.012","article-title":"Exercise metabolism and the molecular regulation of skeletal muscle adaptation.","volume":"17","author":"Egan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Metab"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1152\/physiol.00038.2018","article-title":"High-intensity exercise and mitochondrial biogenesis: current controversies and future research directions.","volume":"34","author":"Bishop","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiology (Bethesda)"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2017.08.009","article-title":"Foundations of immunometabolism and implications for metabolic health and disease.","volume":"47","author":"Hotamisligil","year":"2017","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2012.49","article-title":"Muscles, exercise and obesity: skeletal muscle as a secretory organ.","volume":"8","author":"Pedersen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat Rev Endocrinol"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2013.09.008","article-title":"Exercise induces hippocampal BDNF through a PGC-1\u03b1\/FNDC5 pathway.","volume":"18","author":"Wrann","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Metab"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.02.043","article-title":"Bone and muscle endocrine functions: unexpected paradigms of inter-organ communication.","volume":"164","author":"Karsenty","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1917","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.01047.2007","article-title":"Physiological role of free radicals in skeletal muscles.","volume":"2007","author":"Lecarpentier","year":"1985","journal-title":"J Appl Physiol"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2014.10.003","article-title":"A meta-analytic review of the effects of exercise on brain-derived neurotrophic factor.","volume":"60","author":"Szuhany","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Psychiatr Res"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2008.05.009","article-title":"Creatine supplementation does not improve cognitive function in young adults.","volume":"95","author":"Rawson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Physiol Behav"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2016.01.016","article-title":"New strategies in sport nutrition to increase exercise performance.","volume":"98","author":"Close","year":"2016","journal-title":"Free Radic Biol Med"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.35.2.118","article-title":"Short term power output in relation to growth and maturation.","volume":"35","author":"Armstrong","year":"2001","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1123\/pes.21.2.130","article-title":"Oxygen uptake kinetics in children and adolescents: a review.","volume":"21","author":"Armstrong","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pediatr Exerc Sci"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/s1054-139x(02)00485-8","article-title":"Growth at puberty.","volume":"31","author":"Rogol","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Adolesc Health"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16040571","article-title":"Advances in understanding the interplay between dietary practices, body composition, and sports performance in athletes.","volume":"16","author":"Mart\u00edn-Rodr\u00edguez","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2012.00142","article-title":"Effects of physical activity and inactivity on muscle fatigue.","volume":"3","author":"Bogdanis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front Physiol"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"607S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/72.2.607S","article-title":"Does dietary creatine supplementation play a role in skeletal muscle metabolism and performance?","volume":"72","author":"Casey","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2875","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1993.74.6.2875","article-title":"Recovery of muscle power after high-intensity short-term exercise: comparing boys and men.","volume":"1993","author":"Hebestreit","year":"1985","journal-title":"J Appl Physiol"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2165\/00007256-200131010-00001","article-title":"The relationship between aerobic fitness and recovery from high intensity intermittent exercise.","volume":"31","author":"Tomlin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1249\/00003677-200607000-00004","article-title":"Child-adult differences in the recovery from high-intensity exercise.","volume":"34","author":"Falk","year":"2006","journal-title":"Exerc Sport Sci Rev"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-007-0546-0","article-title":"Anaerobic performance and metabolism in boys and male adolescents.","volume":"101","author":"Beneke","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur J Appl Physiol"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.2165\/00007256-200131100-00003","article-title":"Energy system interaction and relative contribution during maximal exercise.","volume":"31","author":"Gastin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00031.2008","article-title":"The endocrine response and substrate utilization during exercise in children and adolescents.","volume":"2008","author":"Riddell","year":"1985","journal-title":"J Appl Physiol"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2328","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000003300","article-title":"The biological basis of sex differences in athletic performance: consensus statement for the American College of Sports Medicine.","volume":"55","author":"Hunter","year":"2023","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S28","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2004-830512","article-title":"Measurement of substrate oxidation during exercise by means of gas exchange measurements.","volume":"26","author":"Jeukendrup","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int J Sports Med"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1159\/000320618","article-title":"Physiology of elite young male athletes.","volume":"56","author":"Armstrong","year":"2011","journal-title":"Med Sport Sci"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2017.04.015","article-title":"Metabolic flexibility in health and disease.","volume":"25","author":"Goodpaster","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Metab"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2017.02.009","article-title":"Enhanced protein translation underlies improved metabolic and physical adaptations to different exercise training modes in young and old humans.","volume":"25","author":"Robinson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Metab"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm3311","article-title":"AMPK: a nutrient and energy sensor that maintains energy homeostasis.","volume":"13","author":"Hardie","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12017","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0705070104","article-title":"AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) action in skeletal muscle via direct phosphorylation of PGC-1alpha.","volume":"104","author":"J\u00e4ger","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2002-0012","article-title":"Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator 1 alpha (PGC-1 alpha): transcriptional coactivator and metabolic regulator.","volume":"24","author":"Puigserver","year":"2003","journal-title":"Endocr Rev"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/S0092-8674(00)80611-X","article-title":"Mechanisms controlling mitochondrial biogenesis and respiration through the thermogenic coactivator PGC-1.","volume":"98","author":"Wu","year":"1999","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00076.2009","article-title":"Ingestion of whey hydrolysate, casein, or soy protein isolate: effects on mixed muscle protein synthesis at rest and following resistance exercise in young men.","volume":"2009","author":"Tang","year":"1985","journal-title":"J Appl Physiol"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.3945\/an.115.008367","article-title":"Nutritional supplements in support of resistance exercise to counter age-related sarcopenia.","volume":"6","author":"Phillips","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv Nutr"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/s0955-2863(03)00030-5","article-title":"Functional properties of whey, whey components, and essential amino acids: mechanisms underlying health benefits for active people (review).","volume":"14","author":"Ha","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Nutr Biochem"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-7075-7-51","article-title":"Effect of protein\/essential amino acids and resistance training on skeletal muscle hypertrophy: a case for whey protein.","volume":"7","author":"Hulmi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nutr Metab (Lond)"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/86.2.373","article-title":"Consumption of fat-free fluid milk after resistance exercise promotes greater lean mass accretion than does consumption of soy or carbohydrate in young, novice, male weightlifters.","volume":"86","author":"Hartman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2008.06.007","article-title":"Supplementation with a whey protein hydrolysate enhances recovery of muscle force-generating capacity following eccentric exercise.","volume":"13","author":"Buckley","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Sci Med Sport"},{"key":"B51","first-page":"643","article-title":"The effects of protein and amino acid supplementation on performance and training adaptations during ten weeks of resistance training.","volume":"20","author":"Kerksick","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Strength Cond Res."},{"key":"B52","first-page":"136","article-title":"Therapeutic applications of whey protein.","volume":"9","author":"Marshall","year":"2004","journal-title":"Altern Med Rev."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"526S","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2005.10719501","article-title":"Dietary protein: an essential nutrient for bone health.","volume":"24","author":"Bonjour","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Am Coll Nutr"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/73.1.5","article-title":"Protein intake and bone health: the influence of belief systems on the conduct of nutritional science.","volume":"73","author":"Heaney","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s12970-020-00350-z","article-title":"Effects of post exercise protein supplementation on markers of bone turnover in adolescent swimmers.","volume":"17","author":"Theocharidis","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Int Soc Sports Nutr"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101524","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tjnut.2026.101524","article-title":"Greek yogurt compared with whey protein supplementation in adolescent athletes throughout a competitive season.","volume":"156","author":"Bell","year":"2026","journal-title":"J Nutr"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7761","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17217761","article-title":"Effects of post-exercise whey protein consumption on recovery indices in adolescent swimmers.","volume":"17","author":"McKinlay","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1139\/apnm-2025-0325","article-title":"The effects of whey protein supplementation on athletic performance and body composition in adolescent soccer players: a randomized controlled trial.","volume":"51","author":"Zimmerman","year":"2026","journal-title":"Appl Physiol Nutr Metab"},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1002\/jmd2.12244","article-title":"Resistance exercise training with protein supplementation improves skeletal muscle strength and improves quality of life in late adolescents and young adults with Barth syndrome: a pilot study.","volume":"62","author":"Bohnert","year":"2021","journal-title":"JIMD Rep"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1186\/s12970-017-0173-z","article-title":"International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine.","volume":"14","author":"Kreider","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Int Soc Sports Nutr"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.13.2.198","article-title":"Effect of creatine supplementation on body composition and performance: a meta-analysis.","volume":"13","author":"Branch","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1007\/s00726-011-0877-3","article-title":"The creatine kinase system and pleiotropic effects of creatine.","volume":"40","author":"Wallimann","year":"2011","journal-title":"Amino Acids"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1996.81.1.232","article-title":"Muscle creatine loading in men.","volume":"1996","author":"Hultman","year":"1985","journal-title":"J Appl Physiol"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1349","DOI":"10.1007\/s00726-011-0855-9","article-title":"Use of creatine in the elderly and evidence for effects on cognitive function in young and old.","volume":"40","author":"Rawson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Amino Acids"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1152\/physiolgenomics.00157.2007","article-title":"Global and targeted gene expression and protein content in skeletal muscle of young men following short-term creatine monohydrate supplementation.","volume":"32","author":"Safdar","year":"2008","journal-title":"Physiol Genomics"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/1550-2783-6-13","article-title":"Creatine supplementation enhances muscle force recovery after eccentrically-induced muscle damage in healthy individuals.","volume":"6","author":"Cooke","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Int Soc Sports Nutr"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13030745","article-title":"Current evidence and possible future applications of creatine supplementation for older adults.","volume":"13","author":"Candow","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1035","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14051035","article-title":"Bioavailability, efficacy, safety, and regulatory status of creatine and related compounds: a critical review.","volume":"14","author":"Kreider","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s12970-017-0162-2","article-title":"Effect of low dose, short-term creatine supplementation on muscle power output in elite youth soccer players.","volume":"14","author":"Y\u00e1\u00f1ez-Silva","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Int Soc Sports Nutr"},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1556\/APhysiol.96.2009.3.6","article-title":"Creatine supplementation improves the anaerobic performance of elite junior fin swimmers.","volume":"96","author":"Juh\u00e1sz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acta Physiol Hung"},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsn.7.4.330","article-title":"Effects of creatine supplementation on repetitive sprint performance and body composition in competitive swimmers.","volume":"7","author":"Grindstaff","year":"1997","journal-title":"Int J Sport Nutr"},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1080\/15502783.2022.2108683","article-title":"A randomized open-labeled study to examine the effects of creatine monohydrate and combined training on jump and scoring performance in young basketball players.","volume":"19","author":"Vargas-Molina","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Int Soc Sports Nutr"},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.14.1.95","article-title":"Creatine supplementation in young soccer players.","volume":"14","author":"Ostojic","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab"},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S34","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0044-1788683","article-title":"Effects of short-term creatine monohydrate supplementation combined with strength training on the physical fitness characteristics and muscle hypertrophy in junior women wrestlers.","volume":"15","author":"Zahabi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Health Allied Sci NU"},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2437","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16152437","article-title":"Combined impact of creatine, caffeine, and variable resistance on repeated sprint ability in young soccer players.","volume":"16","author":"Huerta Ojeda","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B76","first-page":"58","article-title":"Effect of creatine on swimming velocity, body composition and hydrodynamic variables.","volume":"47","author":"Silva","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Sports Med Phys Fitness."},{"key":"B77","first-page":"485","article-title":"Effects of 4 weeks of creatine supplementation in junior swimmers on freestyle sprint and swim bench performance.","volume":"16","author":"Dawson","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Strength Cond Res."},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1186\/1550-2783-11-32","article-title":"Creatine monohydrate supplementation on lower-limb muscle power in Brazilian elite soccer players.","volume":"11","author":"Claudino","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Int Soc Sports Nutr"},{"key":"B79","first-page":"279","article-title":"Creatine supplementation supports the rehabilitation of adolescent fin swimmers in tendon overuse injury cases.","volume":"17","author":"Juhasz","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Sports Sci Med."},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jor.2023.03.010","article-title":"Creatine supplementation in the pediatric and adolescent athlete\u2013 a literature review.","volume":"38","author":"Metzger","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Orthop"},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3089","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-025-06784-4","article-title":"Acute kidney injury with cast nephropathy following creatine loading in a 17-year-old.","volume":"40","author":"Filler","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pediatr Nephrol"},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.18826\/useeabd.843434","article-title":"Kinetics of cytokines IL-6, IL-10 and TNF-\u03b1 and their relationship with serum IGF-I and IGFBP-3 concentrations in adolescent swimmers throughout a training season.","volume":"6","author":"Pires","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Sport Exe Train Sci."},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2013.03.003","article-title":"Effects of creatine supplementation on oxidative stress and inflammatory markers after repeated-sprint exercise in humans.","volume":"29","author":"Deminice","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2129","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2010.201327","article-title":"Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species as intracellular signals in skeletal muscle.","volume":"589","author":"Powers","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Physiol"},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5195","DOI":"10.1113\/JP271957","article-title":"Nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-like 2 (NFE2L2, Nrf2) mediates exercise-induced mitochondrial biogenesis and the anti-oxidant response in mice.","volume":"594","author":"Merry","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Physiol"},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10777","article-title":"A PGC1-\u03b1-dependent myokine that drives brown-fat-like development of white fat and thermogenesis.","volume":"481","author":"Bostr\u00f6m","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/s0166-2236(02)02143-4","article-title":"Exercise: a behavioral intervention to enhance brain health and plasticity.","volume":"25","author":"Cotman","year":"2002","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci"},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2018.03.008","article-title":"The science and translation of lactate shuttle theory.","volume":"27","author":"Brooks","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Metab"},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2369","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1661-18.2019","article-title":"Lactate mediates the effects of exercise on learning and memory through SIRT1-dependent activation of hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).","volume":"39","author":"El Hayek","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"902186","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/902186","article-title":"Irisin enhances osteoblast differentiation in vitro.","volume":"2014","author":"Colaianni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int J Endocrinol"},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10763","article-title":"The contribution of bone to whole-organism physiology.","volume":"481","author":"Karsenty","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bone.2014.03.008","article-title":"Undercarboxylated osteocalcin, muscle strength and indices of bone health in older women.","volume":"64","author":"Levinger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bone"},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s12970-017-0177-8","article-title":"International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: protein and exercise.","volume":"14","author":"J\u00e4ger","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Int Soc Sports Nutr"},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2011.225003","article-title":"Muscle protein synthesis in response to nutrition and exercise.","volume":"590","author":"Atherton","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Physiol"},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1249\/01.mss.0000162690.39830.27","article-title":"Increased IGF mRNA in human skeletal muscle after creatine supplementation.","volume":"37","author":"Deldicque","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc"},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1154","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00164.2004","article-title":"The anti-inflammatory effect of exercise.","volume":"98","author":"Petersen","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Appl Physiol (1985)"},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1186\/s12970-018-0242-y","article-title":"ISSN exercise & sports nutrition review update: research & recommendations.","volume":"15","author":"Kerksick","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Int Soc Sports Nutr"},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1917","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2003.11.036","article-title":"The effect of creatine supplementation upon inflammatory and muscle soreness markers after a 30km race.","volume":"75","author":"Santos","year":"2004","journal-title":"Life Sci"},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1725","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.2001.81.4.1725","article-title":"Spinal and supraspinal factors in human muscle fatigue.","volume":"81","author":"Gandevia","year":"2001","journal-title":"Physiol Rev"},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.1038\/ncb1101-1014","article-title":"Akt\/mTOR pathway is a crucial regulator of skeletal muscle hypertrophy and can prevent muscle atrophy in vivo.","volume":"3","author":"Bodine","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nat Cell Biol"},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"533S","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/136.2.533S","article-title":"Leucine regulates translation initiation of protein synthesis in skeletal muscle after exercise.","volume":"136","author":"Norton","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Nutr"},{"key":"B102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1439","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0000000000000756","article-title":"Long-term athletic development- part 1: a pathway for all youth.","volume":"29","author":"Lloyd","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Strength Cond Res"},{"key":"B103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2022.102300","article-title":"Effects of acute endurance, strength, and coordination exercise interventions on attention in adolescents: a randomized controlled study.","volume":"64","author":"Altermann","year":"2023","journal-title":"Psychol Sport Exerc"},{"key":"B104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1249\/JSR.0b013e31821b1442","article-title":"When to initiate integrative neuromuscular training to reduce sports-related injuries and enhance health in youth?","volume":"10","author":"Myer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr Sports Med Rep"},{"key":"B105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1123\/pes.23.4.573","article-title":"Effects of integrative neuromuscular training on fitness performance in children.","volume":"23","author":"Faigenbaum","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatr Exerc Sci"},{"key":"B106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2018.04.013","article-title":"Effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function of healthy individuals: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials.","volume":"108","author":"Avgerinos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp Gerontol"},{"key":"B107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203881903","volume-title":"Physical Literacy: Throughout the Lifecourse.","author":"Whitehead","year":"2010"},{"key":"B108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1035","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10071035","article-title":"Age and sport intensity-dependent changes in cytokines and telomere length in elite athletes.","volume":"10","author":"Sellami","year":"2021","journal-title":"Antioxidants (Basel)"},{"key":"B109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1519\/ssc.0b013e31825760ea","article-title":"The youth physical development model.","volume":"34","author":"Lloyd","year":"2012","journal-title":"Strength Condition J"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Nutrition"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnut.2026.1915252\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T13:38:02Z","timestamp":1790343482000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnut.2026.1915252\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"references-count":109,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fnut.2026.1915252"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnut.2026.1915252","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-861X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-861X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"article-number":"1915252"}}