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Oncol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Purpose<\/jats:title><jats:p>To introduce an end-to-end automatic segmentation model for organs at risk (OARs) in thoracic CT images based on modified DenseNet, and reduce the workload of radiation oncologists.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Materials and Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>The computed tomography (CT) images of 36 lung cancer patients were included in this study, of which 27 patients\u2019 images were randomly selected as the training set, 9 patients\u2019 as the testing set. The validation set was generated by cross validation and 6 patients\u2019 images were randomly selected from the training set during each epoch as the validation set. The autosegmentation task of the left and right lungs, spinal cord, heart, trachea and esophagus was implemented, and the whole training time was approximately 5 hours. Geometric evaluation metrics including the Dice similarity coefficient (DSC), 95% Hausdorff distance (HD95) and average surface distance (ASD), were used to assess the autosegmentation performance of OARs based on the proposed model and were compared with those based on U-Net as benchmarks. Then, two sets of treatment plans were optimized based on the manually contoured targets and OARs (Plan1), as well as the manually contours targets and the automatically contoured OARs (Plan2). Dosimetric parameters, including Dmax, Dmean and Vx, of OARs were obtained and compared.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The DSC, HD95 and ASD of the proposed model were better than those of U-Net. The differences in the DSC of the spinal cord and esophagus, differences in the HD95 of the spinal cord, heart, trachea and esophagus, as well as differences in the ASD of the spinal cord were statistically significant between the two models (<jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>&amp;lt;0.05). The differences in the dose-volume parameters of the two sets of plans were not statistically significant (<jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>&amp;gt;0.05). Moreover, compared with manual segmentation, autosegmentation significantly reduced the contouring time by nearly 40.7% (<jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>&amp;lt;0.05).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>The bilateral lungs, spinal cord, heart and trachea could be accurately delineated using the proposed model in this study; however, the automatic segmentation effect of the esophagus must still be further improved. The concept of feature map reuse provides a new idea for automatic medical image segmentation.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2022.861857","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,15]],"date-time":"2022-03-15T07:47:43Z","timestamp":1647330463000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Geometric and Dosimetric Evaluation of the Automatic Delineation of Organs at Risk (OARs) in Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer Radiotherapy Based on a Modified DenseNet Deep Learning 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