{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T13:47:01Z","timestamp":1790948821218,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,22]],"date-time":"2025-10-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761091200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Oncol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Detailed, comprehensive, and timely reporting on cancer incidence, mortality, and associated burdens is essential for understanding the evolving trends of this complex disease. This study aims to evaluate the burdens of 34 types of cancer across 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2021, incorporating the latest epidemiological data to provide a framework for policy discussions, resource allocation, and research prioritization.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Using data from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2021 study, we analyzed 34 cancer types across 204 countries from 1990 to 2021, stratifying by age, sex, region, and sociodemographic index (SDI) and projecting future trends using a Bayesian age-period-cohort model.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In 2021, there were 23.57 million new cases and 9.83 million deaths, with a global age-standardized incidence rate (ASIR) of 275.2 per 100,000 and age-standardized mortality rate (ASMR) of 115.8 per 100,000. Cancer incidence has risen 2.3-fold, with the ASIR increasing by 8.8% and the ASMR decreasing by 21.5% over the period since 1990. Tracheal, bronchial, and lung cancer, colorectal cancer, stomach cancer, and breast cancer were the leading causes of mortality, while nonmelanoma skin cancer, tracheal, bronchial, and lung cancer, colorectal cancer, breast cancer, and prostate cancer had the highest incidence rates. Men had 1.2 times higher incidence and 1.3 times higher mortality than women. North America had the highest ASIR, while East Africa had the highest ASMR. High-SDI countries had higher incidence, whereas low-SDI countries bore the highest mortality burden. By 2050, cancer incidence is projected to exceed 26 million cases, with prevalence surpassing 100 million, while mortality is expected to decline by 14.8%.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Despite advances in detection and treatment, the rising global cancer burden and persistent disparities highlight the urgent need for equitable prevention, early diagnosis, and resource allocation to reduce cancer mortality worldwide. The potential long-term impact of COVID-19 on cancer development and progression remains unclear, warranting further investigation in the post-pandemic era.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2025.1660125","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,22]],"date-time":"2025-10-22T04:17:58Z","timestamp":1761106678000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Global, regional, and national burden of 34 cancer groups across 204 countries and territories, 1990\u20132021, and projections to 2050: a systematic analysis of the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Linfeng","family":"Zhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiangpeng","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qing","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaotong","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"YuTao","family":"Yuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sheng","family":"Ding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiafeng","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lei","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shuangshuang","family":"Hou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","unstructured":"Noncommunicable diseases\n          \n          \n          \n          2023"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(18)31694-5","article-title":"Forecasting life expectancy, years of life lost, and all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 250 causes of death: reference and alternative scenarios for 2016\u201340 for 195 countries and territories","volume":"392","author":"Foreman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.1016\/s1470-2045(12)70211-5","article-title":"Global cancer transitions according to the Human Development Index (2008-2030): a population-based study","volume":"13","author":"Bray","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21660","article-title":"Global cancer statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries","volume":"71","author":"Sung","year":"2021","journal-title":"CA Cancer J Clin"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(18)31992-5","article-title":"NCD Countdown 2030: worldwide trends in non-communicable disease mortality and progress towards Sustainable Development Goal target 3.4","volume":"392","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(20)31761-x","article-title":"NCD Countdown 2030: pathways to achieving Sustainable Development Goal target 3.4","volume":"396","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(17)32336-x","article-title":"Measuring progress and projecting attainment on the basis of past trends of the health-related Sustainable Development Goals in 188 countries: an analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016","volume":"390","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(20)30925-9","article-title":"Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990-2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019","volume":"396","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(24)00757-8","article-title":"Global incidence, prevalence, years lived with disability (YLDs), disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), and healthy life expectancy (HALE) for 371 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1990-2021: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021","volume":"403","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(24)00933-4","article-title":"Global burden and strength of evidence for 88 risk factors in 204 countries and 811 subnational locations, 1990-2021: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021","volume":"403","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoncol.2021.6987","article-title":"Cancer incidence, mortality, years of life lost, years lived with disability, and disability-adjusted life years for 29 cancer groups from 2010 to 2019: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2019","volume":"8","author":"Kocarnik","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Oncol"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1186\/s13045-021-01213-z","article-title":"Global, regional, and national cancer incidence and death for 29 cancer groups in 2019 and trends analysis of the global cancer burden, 1990-2019","volume":"14","author":"Lin","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Hematol Oncol"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0457-8","article-title":"Facing up to the global challenges of ageing","volume":"561","author":"Partridge","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(09)61460-4","article-title":"Ageing populations: the challenges ahead","volume":"374","author":"Christensen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-024-03164-7","article-title":"Proteomic aging clock predicts mortality and risk of common age-related diseases in diverse populations","volume":"30","author":"Argentieri","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s1470-2045(23)00156-0","article-title":"Utility of polygenic risk scores in UK cancer screening: a modelling analysis","volume":"24","author":"Huntley","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aay9040","article-title":"Early detection of cancer","volume":"375","author":"Crosby","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41571-023-00844-0","article-title":"Lung cancer in patients who have never smoked - an emerging disease","volume":"21","author":"LoPiccolo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Rev Clin Oncol"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21499","article-title":"Global patterns in excess body weight and the associated cancer burden","volume":"69","author":"Sung","year":"2019","journal-title":"CA Cancer J Clin"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(21)01169-7","article-title":"Spatial, temporal, and demographic patterns in prevalence of smoking tobacco use and attributable disease burden in 204 countries and territories, 1990-2019: a systematic analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019","volume":"397","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1186\/s12943-024-02175-9","article-title":"Targeting mitochondria: restoring the antitumor efficacy of exhausted T cells","volume":"23","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol Cancer"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41573-024-01060-w","article-title":"DNA damage response inhibitors in cancer therapy: lessons from the past, current status and future implications","volume":"24","author":"Drew","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Rev Drug Discov"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41571-024-00959-y","article-title":"Allogeneic chimeric antigen receptor cell therapies for cancer: progress made and remaining roadblocks","volume":"22","author":"Diorio","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Rev Clin Oncol"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s1470-2045(21)00492-7","article-title":"Cancer control in Latin America and the Caribbean: recent advances and opportunities to move forward","volume":"22","author":"Barrios","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1038\/s41571-024-00902-1","article-title":"Cancer mRNA vaccines: clinical advances and future opportunities","volume":"21","author":"Sayour","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Rev Clin Oncol"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41571-024-00904-z","article-title":"Epidemiology of HPV-associated cancers past, present and future: towards prevention and elimination","volume":"21","author":"Malag\u00f3n","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Rev Clin Oncol"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2020.597788","article-title":"Genome-wide sex and gender differences in cancer","volume":"10","author":"Lopes-Ramos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Oncol"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41568-024-00680-z","article-title":"Hallmarks of sex bias in immuno-oncology: mechanisms and therapeutic implications","volume":"24","author":"Xiao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Rev Cancer"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbcan.2021.188647","article-title":"Sex, immunity, and cancer","volume":"1877","author":"Pinto","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/jwh.2023.0019","article-title":"Sex differences in soft tissue sarcoma: incidence, clinicopathological profile, survival, and costs","volume":"32","author":"Buja","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Womens Health (Larchmt)"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41571-021-00514-z","article-title":"Planning for tomorrow: global cancer incidence and the role of prevention 2020-2070","volume":"18","author":"Soerjomataram","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Rev Clin Oncol"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2443198","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2024.43198","article-title":"Global disparities of cancer and its projected burden in 2050","volume":"7","author":"Bizuayehu","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(24)00685-8","article-title":"Burden of disease scenarios for 204 countries and territories, 2022-2050: a forecasting analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021","volume":"403","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoncol.2022.7826","article-title":"Estimates and projections of the global economic cost of 29 cancers in 204 countries and territories from 2020 to 2050","volume":"9","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Oncol"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1186\/s13045-024-01623-9","article-title":"Global cancer statistics for adolescents and young adults: population based study","volume":"17","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Hematol Oncol"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.18457","article-title":"Global incidence and mortality of gastric cancer, 1980-2018","volume":"4","author":"Wong","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21551","article-title":"Cancer statistics, 2019","volume":"69","author":"Siegel","year":"2019","journal-title":"CA Cancer J Clin"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.Epi-11-0246","article-title":"Sex disparities in cancer mortality and survival","volume":"20","author":"Cook","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoncol.2022.1472","article-title":"Trends in cancer mortality among black individuals in the US from 1999 to 2019","volume":"8","author":"Lawrence","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Oncol"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/7854_2024_497","article-title":"Exercise and smoking cessation","volume":"67","author":"Garey","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr Top Behav Neurosci"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/hep.0000000000000872","article-title":"Incidence of liver cancer in young adults according to the Global Burden of Disease database 2019","volume":"80","author":"Danpanichkul","year":"2024","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"uiae040","DOI":"10.1093\/joccuh\/uiae040","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of cancers attributable to occupational risks from 1990 to 2019","volume":"66","author":"Ling","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Occup Health"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2023.108363","article-title":"Sex difference in liver diseases: How preclinical models help to dissect the sex-related mechanisms sustaining NAFLD and hepatocellular carcinoma","volume":"26","author":"Smiriglia","year":"2023","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrurol.2015.232","article-title":"Gender differences in incidence and outcomes of urothelial and kidney cancer","volume":"12","author":"Lucca","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat Rev Urol"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-02112-7","article-title":"Pharmacotypes across the genomic landscape of pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia and impact on treatment response","volume":"29","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1038\/s41580-024-00775-3","article-title":"Roles of chromatin and genome instability in cellular senescence and their relevance to ageing and related diseases","volume":"25","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-4933-5-11","article-title":"Immunity, ageing and cancer","volume":"5","author":"Derhovanessian","year":"2008","journal-title":"Immun Ageing"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1186\/s13045-024-01593-y","article-title":"Global burden of thyroid cancer from 1990 to 2021: a systematic analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021","volume":"17","author":"Zhou","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Hematol Oncol"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2024-333227","article-title":"Epidemiology of gastrointestinal cancers: a systematic analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021","volume":"74","author":"Danpanichkul","year":"2024","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtho.2024.01.014","article-title":"Global burden of lung cancer attributable to household fine particulate matter pollution in 204 countries and territories, 1990 to 2019","volume":"19","author":"Zhou","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Thorac Oncol"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2024.1424155","article-title":"Worldwide burden of liver cancer due to metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis from 1990 to 2019: insights from the Global Burden of Disease study","volume":"14","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Oncol"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2024.102713","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of female cancers in women of child-bearing age, 1990-2021: analysis of data from the global burden of disease study 2021","volume":"74","author":"Sun","year":"2024","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(20)31187-9","article-title":"Clinical impact of COVID-19 on patients with cancer (CCC19): a cohort study","volume":"395","author":"Kuderer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s1470-2045(20)30388-0","article-title":"The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cancer deaths due to delays in diagnosis in England, UK: a national, population-based, modelling study","volume":"21","author":"Maringe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1186\/s12943-024-02063-2","article-title":"Clinical application of liquid biopsy in colorectal cancer: detection, prediction, and treatment monitoring","volume":"23","author":"Tao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol Cancer"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers17020241","article-title":"Utility of polygenic risk scores (PRSs) in predicting pancreatic cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis of common-variant and mixed scores with insights into rare variant analysis","volume":"17","author":"Verras","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cancers (Basel)"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4577","DOI":"10.3390\/s22124577","article-title":"A smarter health through the internet of surgical things","volume":"22","author":"Mulita","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel)"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2023.03.023","article-title":"The ethics of risk-stratified cancer screening","volume":"187","author":"Dennison","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur J Cancer"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Oncology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fonc.2025.1660125\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,22]],"date-time":"2025-10-22T04:18:01Z","timestamp":1761106681000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fonc.2025.1660125\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,22]]},"references-count":58,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fonc.2025.1660125"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fonc.2025.1660125","relation":{},"ISSN":["2234-943X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2234-943X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,22]]},"article-number":"1660125"}}