{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T05:17:14Z","timestamp":1788326234435,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788307200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Oncol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>The aim of this review is to consider the role of high-risk human papillomaviruses (HPVs) in breast cancer. HPVs have established causal roles in cancers of the cervix, anus, penis, vagina, vulva, and oropharyngeal cancers. High-risk HPVs have been consistently detected in breast cancers in 23 countries. HPVs have been identified in 32.7% of breast cancers as compared to 7.6% of benign and normal breast controls. HPV-positive benign breast lesions can progress to HPV-positive malignancies, suggesting an early role of HPVs in carcinogenesis. HPV biological activity has been demonstrated by the detection of HPV transcripts, HPV oncogenic protein expression (HPV E6\/E7), and HPV-induced koilocytes in breast cancer tissues. HPVs sourced from normal breast tissues and human milk can immortalise normal cultured breast epithelial cells. There is a plausible mechanism for the transfer of HPV material from the genital tract and cervix to the breast via blood and circulating exosomes. HPV-associated breast cancer is probably via a \u201chit and run\u201d causal mechanism. The influence of HPV vaccination in reducing the incidence of breast cancer by 18% to 19% offers supportive evidence of causation. Other oncogenic viruses, including mouse mammary tumour virus, Epstein-Barr virus, and bovine leukaemia virus, may contribute to breast carcinogenesis independently or synergistically with high-risk HPVs. The evidence meets the extended Bradford Hill causal criteria. High-risk HPVs probably have a causal role in a subset of breast cancers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2026.1853427","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T04:23:16Z","timestamp":1788322996000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Human papilloma virus as causal in breast cancer"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"James S.","family":"Lawson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales","place":["Sydney, NSW, Australia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wendy K.","family":"Glenn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales","place":["Sydney, NSW, 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