{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:23:03Z","timestamp":1787026983326,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":15,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771372800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Pain Res."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Habituation, or loss of clinical benefit over time, is a frequent problem in spinal cord stimulation (SCS). Existing programming strategies such as waveform cycling or closed-loop stimulation try to address it, but there is no common conceptual framework. This paper introduces the variational free energy (VFE) principle as a way to think about habituation in terms that connect clinical observation with computational models of the brain.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We reviewed the core ideas of VFE, as formulated by Friston and colleagues\u2014recognition density, prior, posterior, accuracy, complexity, and Kullback\u2013Leibler divergence\u2014and explained them with simple examples and equations. We then applied these concepts to clinical scenarios in SCS, with reference to existing literature on habituation, predictors of response, and multimodal outcomes.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The VFE framework treats the brain as an inference engine that balances accuracy (explaining sensory data) against complexity (the cost of changing beliefs). In this lens, habituation can occur when stimulation becomes predictable and weakly informative about the hidden state the patient cares about (e.g., bodily safety), so its precision is down-weighted and the system reverts toward the pre-existing pain model. Conversely, \u201crescue\u201d and closed-loop strategies may work by restoring informative prediction errors and coupling stimulation to meaningful state changes. The asymmetry of KL divergence formalizes why relapse into pain can be easier than sustained relief.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>VFE does not replace mechanistic models of SCS but offers a simple way to frame habituation that is mathematically grounded yet approachable. It may help clinicians and programmers understand why therapy sometimes fails, and why broader outcome targets and flexible programming approaches may lead to more durable benefit.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpain.2026.1728339","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T06:54:52Z","timestamp":1771397692000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Variational free energy as a conceptual framework for understanding habituation in spinal cord stimulation"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Alexander","family":"Taghva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University of California","place":["San Diego, CA, United States"]},{"name":"Orange County Neurosurgical Associates","place":["Mission Viejo, CA, United 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