{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,30]],"date-time":"2025-07-30T16:10:54Z","timestamp":1753891854589,"version":"3.41.2"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]],"date-time":"2025-06-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1750377600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009168","name":"Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["AP23VSSP0000C019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AP23VSSP0000C019"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009168","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Parasitol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>In the far western United States of America, <jats:italic>Ixodes pacificus<\/jats:italic> is the primary vector of several pathogens of public health and veterinary importance including the Lyme disease spirochete <jats:italic>Borrelia burgdorferi<\/jats:italic> sensu lato (s.l.), as well as <jats:italic>Borrelia miyamotoi<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Ixodes pacificus<\/jats:italic> is common in southern Oregon yet there are few published studies on the distribution of tick-borne pathogens in this region. <\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Using real-time quantitative PCR, we assessed the prevalence of <jats:italic>B. burgdorferi<\/jats:italic> s.l., <jats:italic>B. miyamotoi<\/jats:italic>, and <jats:italic>A. phagocytophilum<\/jats:italic> among 2,463 unfed <jats:italic>I. pacificus<\/jats:italic> adults and nymphs combined into 260 pools (131 nymph, 129 adult) with nearly equal numbers of each life stage from 12 locations in Jackson County, Oregon. <\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>In our study, 27.9% (36\/129) and 29.8% (39\/131) of adult and nymph pools, respectively, tested positive for at least a single pathogen. Nymph pools had a higher pool positivity rate (PPR) for <jats:italic>B. burgdorferi<\/jats:italic> s.l. with 15.3% (20\/131) testing positive compared to 3.1% (4\/129) of adult pools. Nymph pools also had a higher minimum infection rate (MIR) and maximum-likelihood estimate of pooled prevalence (EPP) for <jats:italic>B. burgdorferi<\/jats:italic> s.l. than adults. Interestingly, the prevalence of <jats:italic>B. burgdorferi<\/jats:italic> s.l. varied greatly in nymph pools across collection sites (0-70%). PPR of <jats:italic>B. miyamotoi<\/jats:italic> was 21.7% (28\/129) for adults and 12.2% (16\/131) for nymphs, making it the most frequently detected pathogen in adult pools and the most detected pathogen overall. <jats:italic>Anaplasma phagocytophilum<\/jats:italic> was the least frequently detected pathogen overall with a PPR of 3.1% (4\/129) and 2.3% (3\/131) for adults and nymphs, respectively. <\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>These findings underscore the importance of continued surveillance, pathogen testing, and public education regarding ticks in areas such as southern Oregon where <jats:italic>I. pacificus<\/jats:italic> is common but little research has been done. <\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpara.2025.1599377","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]],"date-time":"2025-06-20T05:22:50Z","timestamp":1750396970000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Investigating the prevalence of three medically important pathogens in Ixodes pacificus from southern Oregon"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"4","author":[{"given":"Andrew T.","family":"Partin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Emilio E.","family":"DeBess","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Phillip Q.","family":"Spinks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael J.","family":"Yabsley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kayla B.","family":"Garrett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"James R.","family":"Clover","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Geoffrey R.","family":"Taylor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2019.2598","article-title":"Increasing incidence of anaplasmosis in the United States 2012 through 2016","volume":"20","author":"Baker","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1120","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2009.09-0208","article-title":"Niche partitioning of Borrelia burgdorferi and Borrelia miyamotoi in the same tick vector and mammalian reservoir species","volume":"81","author":"Barbour","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1610","DOI":"10.1126\/science.8503006","article-title":"The biological and social phenomenon of Lyme disease","volume":"260","author":"Barbour","year":"1993","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1089\/153036602321653851","article-title":"Epidemiology and impact of coinfections acquired from Ixodes ticks","volume":"2","author":"Belongia","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10091181","article-title":"Occurrence and identification of Ixodes ricinus borne pathogens in Northeastern Italy","volume":"10","author":"Bertola","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"volume-title":"PooledInfRate, version 4.0: A microsoft","year":"2009","author":"Biggerstaff","key":"B6"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2296","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.25.12.2296-2301.1987","article-title":"Characterization of Borrelia burgdorferi strains isolated from Ixodes pacificus ticks in California","volume":"25","author":"Bissett","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1985.34.925","article-title":"The western black-legged tick, Ixodes pacificus: a vector of Borrelia burgdorferi. Am","volume":"34","author":"Burgdorfer","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1999.60.453","article-title":"Isolation of Borrelia burgdorferi from Neotoma fuscipes, Peromyscus maniculatus, Peromyscus boylii, and Ixodes pacificus in Oregon","volume":"60","author":"Burkot","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.32.3.589-595.1994","article-title":"Identification of a granulocytotropic Ehrlichia species as the etiologic agent of human disease","volume":"32","author":"Chen","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-159-1-201307020-00005","article-title":"Borrelia miyamotoi infection presenting as human granulocytic anaplasmosis: a case report","volume":"159","author":"Chowdri","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1995.53.237","article-title":"Evidence implicating nymphal Ixodes pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae) in the epidemiology of Lyme disease in California","volume":"53","author":"Clover","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5877(98)00131-7","article-title":"Comparison of methods for estimation of individual-level prevalence based on pooled samples","volume":"39","author":"Cowling","year":"1999","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1678","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2010.131583","article-title":"Prevalence of Borrelia miyamotoi in Ixodes ticks in Europe and the United States","volume":"20","author":"Crowder","year":"2014","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa050043","article-title":"Rocky Mountain spotted fever from an unexpected tick vector in Arizona","volume":"353","author":"Demma","year":"2005","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2014.02.002","article-title":"Surveillance for Ixodes pacificus and the tickborne pathogens Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Borrelia burgdorferi in birds from California\u2019s Inner Coast Range","volume":"5","author":"Dingler","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2012.11-0395","article-title":"Human risk of infection with Borrelia burgdorferi, the Lyme disease agent, in eastern United States","volume":"86","author":"Diuk-Wasser","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1214\/aoms\/1177731363","article-title":"The detection of defective members of large populations","volume":"14","author":"Dorfman","year":"1943","journal-title":"Ann. Math. Stat."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2006.6.83","article-title":"Use of real-time quantitative PCR targeting the msp2 protein gene to identify cryptic Anaplasma phagocytophilum infections in wildlife and domestic animals","volume":"6","author":"Drazenovich","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2604.191382","article-title":"Ecology and epidemiology of tickborne pathogens, Washington, USA 2011-2016","volume":"26","author":"Dykstra","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2006.75.669","article-title":"Spatial patterns of Lyme disease risk in California based on disease incidence data and modeling of vector-tick exposure","volume":"75","author":"Eisen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2024.102325","article-title":"History of the geographic distribution of the western blacklegged tick, Ixodes pacificus, in the United States","volume":"15","author":"Eisen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0135828","article-title":"Survey of Ixodes pacificus ticks in California reveals a diversity of microorganisms and a novel and widespread Anaplasmataceae species","volume":"10","author":"Eshoo","year":"2015","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1591","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.4780111206","article-title":"Estimating prevalence by group testing using generalized linear models","volume":"11","author":"Farrington","year":"1992","journal-title":"Stat. Med."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1407.071599","article-title":"Anaplasma phagocytophilum infection in small mammal hosts of Ixodes ticks, Western United States","volume":"14","author":"Foley","year":"2008","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2023.102250","article-title":"Prevalence of five human pathogens in host-seeking Ixodes scapularis and Ixodes pacificus by region, state, and county in the contiguous United States generated through national tick surveillance","volume":"14","author":"Foster","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-borne Dis."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12040557","article-title":"Effective methods of estimation of pathogen prevalence in pooled ticks","volume":"12","author":"Fracasso","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pathogens."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"(11)","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0236849","article-title":"Sample pooling methods for efficient pathogen screening: Practical implications","volume":"15","author":"Furstenau","year":"2020","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B29","first-page":"(1","article-title":"The ixodidae of Canada","volume":"930","author":"Gregson","year":"1956","journal-title":"Can. Dept. Agric. Sci. Ser. Entom. Div. Publ."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep45199","article-title":"Integrated DNA and RNA extraction using magnetic beads from viral pathogens causing acute respiratory infections","volume":"7","author":"He","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2024.102360","article-title":"Geographic variation in the distribution of Anaplasma phagocytophilum variants in host-seeking Ixodes scapularis nymphs and adults in the eastern United States elucidated using next generation sequencing","volume":"15","author":"Hojgaard","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1603\/0022-2585-40.4.534","article-title":"Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi, Ehrlichia chaffeensis, and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) from a coastal region of California","volume":"40","author":"Holden","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Med. Ent."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc1215469","article-title":"Human Borrelia miyamotoi infection in the United States","volume":"368","author":"Krause","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/28.3.299","article-title":"Wood rats and kangaroo rats, potential reservoirs of the Lyme disease spirochete in California, USA","volume":"28","author":"Lane","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"B35","first-page":"395","article-title":"Ixodes spinipalpis: a probable enzootic vector of Borrelia burgdorferi in California","volume":"2","author":"Lane","year":"1999","journal-title":"Acarology IX"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1988.tb31853.x","article-title":"Lyme borreliosis in california","volume":"539","author":"Lane","year":"1988","journal-title":"Ann. NY Acad. Soc"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1645\/GE-738R1.1","article-title":"Refractoriness of the western fence lizard (Sceloporus occidentalis) to the lyme disease group spirochete Borrelia bissettii","volume":"92","author":"Lane","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. @ Parasitol."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2010.09.004","article-title":"Differences in prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma spp. infection among host-seeking Dermacentor occidentalis, Ixodes pacificus, and Ornithodoros coriaceus ticks in northwestern California","volume":"1","author":"Lane","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.3376\/1081-1710(2007)32[342:HBOIPA]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Host-seeking behavior of Ixodes pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae) nymphs in relation to environmental parameters in dense-woodland and woodland-grass habitats","volume":"32","author":"Lane","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Vector Ecol."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.2307\/3284524","article-title":"Borreliacidal factor in the blood of the western fence lizard (Sceloporous occidentalis)","volume":"84","author":"Lane","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Parasitol."},{"key":"B41","first-page":"534","article-title":"Lyme disease in northwestern coastal California","volume":"160","author":"Ley","year":"1994","journal-title":"West. J. Med."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1093\/jme\/tjx258","article-title":"Prevalence and geographic distribution of Borrelia miyamotoi in host-seeking Ixodes pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae) nymphs in Mendocino County, California","volume":"55","author":"Lynn","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Med. Ent."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2021.105158","article-title":"PoolTestR: An R package for estimating prevalence and regression modelling for molecular xenomonitoring and other applications with pooled samples","volume":"145","author":"McLure","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Software"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11010089","article-title":"Ecology of Ixodes pacificus ticks and associated pathogens in the Western United States","volume":"11","author":"McVicar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pathogens."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/43.1.120","article-title":"Detection of a Borrelia miyamotoi sensu lato relapsing-fever group spirochete from Ixodes pacificus in California","volume":"43","author":"Mun","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0110853","article-title":"Large-scale spatial risk and comparative prevalence of Borrelia miyamotoi and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in Ixodes pacificus","volume":"9","author":"Padgett","year":"2014","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2019.2489","article-title":"Human seroprevalence of tick-borne Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Borrelia burgdorferi, and Rickettsia species in Northern California","volume":"19","author":"Pascoe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8177","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02183-15","article-title":"The high prevalence and diversity of Chlamydiales DNA within Ixodes ricinus ticks suggest a role for ticks as reservoirs and vectors of Chlamydia-related bacteria","volume":"81","author":"Pilloux","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2014.05.002","article-title":"Seasonal activity patterns of the western black-legged tick, Ixodes pacificus, in relation to onset of human Lyme disease in northwestern California","volume":"5","author":"Salkeld","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ticks Tick- Borne Dis."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00319-21","article-title":"Examining prevalence and diversity of tick-borne pathogens in questing Ixodes pacificus ticks in California","volume":"87","author":"Salkeld","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2008.79.535","article-title":"Identifying the reservoir hosts of the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi in California: The role of the western gray squirrel (Sciurus griseus)","volume":"79","author":"Salkeld","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"(6)","DOI":"10.1002\/ecs2.3171","article-title":"Mixed transmission modes promote persistence of an emerging tickborne pathogen","volume":"11","author":"Sambado","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecosphere."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":". 1","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.ss6622a1","article-title":"Surveillance for lyme disease\u2014United states 2011\u20132015","volume":"66","author":"Schwartz","year":"2017","journal-title":"MMWR Surveill. Summ."},{"key":"B54","article-title":"Epitools epidemiological calculators","volume-title":"AusVet animal health services and Australian biosecurity cooperative research centre for emerging infectious disease","author":"Sergeant","year":"2018"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2013.00031","article-title":"Anaplasma phagocytophilum- a widespread multi-host pathogen with highly adaptive strategies","volume":"3","author":"Stuen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2970","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2010.2402","article-title":"Impact of the experimental removal of lizards on Lyme disease risk","volume":"278","author":"Swei","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proceedings: Biol. Sci."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1044","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/35.6.1044","article-title":"Infestation of the southern alligator lizard (Squamata: Anguidae) by Ixodes pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae) and its susceptibility to Borrelia burgdorferi","volume":"35","author":"Wright","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. @ Med. Entomol."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2018.2323","article-title":"Human biting Ixodes ticks and pathogen prevalence from California, Oregon, and Washington","volume":"19","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vector- Borne Zoonotic Dis."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Parasitology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpara.2025.1599377\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]],"date-time":"2025-06-20T05:22:52Z","timestamp":1750396972000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpara.2025.1599377\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]]},"references-count":58,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpara.2025.1599377"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpara.2025.1599377","relation":{},"ISSN":["2813-2424"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2813-2424"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]]},"article-number":"1599377"}}