{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,20]],"date-time":"2026-10-20T10:20:11Z","timestamp":1792491611491,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,14]],"date-time":"2025-08-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755129600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Parasitol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>Trichomoniasis, the most common non-viral sexually transmitted disease, is caused by the protozoon <jats:italic>Trichomonas vaginalis<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>T. vaginalis<\/jats:italic> can establish a symbiosis with two bacteria, <jats:italic>Mycoplasma hominis<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Candidatus<\/jats:italic> Mycoplasma girerdii, whose intracellular presence may modulate several characteristics of the protozoan, including its sensitivity to 5-nitroimidazoles, the only class of drugs currently effective in treating trichomoniasis. The rising prevalence of <jats:italic>T.vaginalis<\/jats:italic> strains resistant to metronidazole, the most commonly used antitrichomonal drug, underscores the need for therapeutic alternatives active against the protozoon.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>In this study, we evaluate the antimicrobial activity of essential oils extracted from three plants cultivated in Vietnam \u2014 <jats:italic>Cymbopogon citratus<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>Citrus grandis<\/jats:italic>, and <jats:italic>Mentha arvensis<\/jats:italic> \u2014 against thirty <jats:italic>T. vaginalis<\/jats:italic> strains isolated from symptomatic women in Italy and Vietnam. We also assess the influence of <jats:italic>M. hominis<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Ca<\/jats:italic>. M. girerdii on <jats:italic>T. vaginalis<\/jats:italic> susceptibility to essential oils and metronidazole, through dedicated susceptibility assays. Additionally, given the importance of lactobacilli in maintaining vaginal health, we investigate the effects of the essential oils on <jats:italic>Lactobacillus gasseri<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Lactobacillus crispatus<\/jats:italic>. The cytotoxic activity of the oils against HeLa cells was also tested <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>All three essential oils showed effective antitrichomonal activity without inhibiting lactobacilli growth. Among them, <jats:italic>C. citratus<\/jats:italic> oil exhibited the strongest inhibitory effect on <jats:italic>T. vaginalis<\/jats:italic>, including strains harboring bacterial symbionts. Moreover, the oils demonstrated no cytotoxic activity against HeLa cells at the concentrations effective against the protozoan.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>The results support the potential of <jats:italic>C. citratus<\/jats:italic> essential oil as a natural antitrichomonal agent. Its effectiveness against both free and symbiont-infected <jats:italic>T. vaginalis<\/jats:italic> strains positions it as a promising candidate for developing alternative therapies against drug-resistant trichomoniasis.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpara.2025.1610965","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,14]],"date-time":"2025-08-14T12:36:27Z","timestamp":1755174987000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Effect of essential oils from Cymbopogon citratus, Citrus grandis, and Mentha arvensis on Trichomonas vaginalis and role of its symbionts Mycoplasma hominis and Ca. 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