{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T09:34:20Z","timestamp":1790760860350,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":94,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,17]],"date-time":"2023-04-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1681689600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Pediatr."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a complex inflammatory disorder of the human intestine that most often occurs in premature newborns. Animal models of NEC typically use mice or rats; however, pigs have emerged as a viable alternative given their similar size, intestinal development, and physiology compared to humans. While most piglet NEC models initially administer total parenteral nutrition prior to enteral feeds, here we describe an enteral-feed only piglet model of NEC that recapitulates the microbiome abnormalities present in neonates that develop NEC and introduce a novel multifactorial definitive NEC (D-NEC) scoring system to assess disease severity.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Premature piglets were delivered <jats:italic>via<\/jats:italic> Caesarean section. Piglets in the colostrum-fed group received bovine colostrum feeds only throughout the experiment. Piglets in the formula-fed group received colostrum for the first 24\u2005h of life, followed by Neocate Junior to induce intestinal injury. The presence of at least 3 of the following 4 criteria were required to diagnose D-NEC: (1) gross injury score \u22654 of 6; (2) histologic injury score \u22653 of 5; (3) a newly developed clinical sickness score \u22655 of 8 within the last 12\u2005h of life; and (4) bacterial translocation to \u22652 internal organs. Quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction was performed to confirm intestinal inflammation in the small intestine and colon. 16S rRNA sequencing was performed to evaluate the intestinal microbiome.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Compared to the colostrum-fed group, the formula-fed group had lower survival, higher clinical sickness scores, and more severe gross and histologic intestinal injury. There was significantly increased bacterial translocation, D-NEC, and expression of <jats:italic>IL-1\u03b1<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>IL-10<\/jats:italic> in the colon of formula-fed compared to colostrum-fed piglets. Intestinal microbiome analysis of piglets with D-NEC demonstrated lower microbial diversity and increased Gammaproteobacteria and Enterobacteriaceae.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>We have developed a clinical sickness score and a new multifactorial D-NEC scoring system to accurately evaluate an enteral feed-only piglet model of NEC. Piglets with D-NEC had microbiome changes consistent with those seen in preterm infants with NEC. This model can be used to test future novel therapies to treat and prevent this devastating disease.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2023.1126552","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,17]],"date-time":"2023-04-17T05:15:15Z","timestamp":1681708515000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Development of a novel definitive scoring system for an enteral feed-only model of necrotizing enterocolitis in piglets"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Mecklin V.","family":"Ragan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samantha J.","family":"Wala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nitin","family":"Sajankila","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Audrey F.","family":"Duff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yijie","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samuel G.","family":"Volpe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ameer","family":"Al-Hadidi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zachary","family":"Dumbauld","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nanditha","family":"Purayil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joseph","family":"Wickham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miriam R.","family":"Conces","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Belgacem","family":"Mihi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steven D.","family":"Goodman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael T.","family":"Bailey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gail E.","family":"Besner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1053\/j.semperi.2008.02.001","article-title":"Neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis. 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