{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,4]],"date-time":"2026-07-04T11:52:48Z","timestamp":1783165968161,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":113,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,17]],"date-time":"2020-09-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1600300800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Pharmacol."],"DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2020.585888","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,17]],"date-time":"2020-09-17T09:25:56Z","timestamp":1600334756000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Pathophysiology and Potential Therapeutic Candidates for COVID-19: A Poorly Understood Arena"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Arghadip","family":"Samaddar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Malika","family":"Grover","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vijaya Lakshmi","family":"Nag","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.thromres.2020.06.029","article-title":"The hypercoagulable state in COVID-19: Incidence, pathophysiology, and management","volume":"194","author":"Abou-Ismail","year":"2020","journal-title":"Thromb. Res."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.00339","article-title":"Antimicrobial activity of mesenchymal stem cells: Current status and new perspectives of antimicrobial peptide-based therapies","volume":"8","author":"Alcayaga-Miranda","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6901286","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/6901286","article-title":"Umbilical Cord as Prospective Source for Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Based Therapy","volume":"2016","author":"Arutyunyan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Stem Cells Int."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsx.2020.04.020","article-title":"Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2): An overview of viral structure and host response","volume":"14","author":"Astuti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Syndr."},{"key":"B5","first-page":"E71","article-title":"Expanded Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stem Cells (UC-MSCs) as a Therapeutic Strategy in Managing Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients: The Case for Compassionate Use","volume":"23","author":"Atluri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pain Physician"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2567.2007.02555.x","article-title":"Immunosenescence: emerging challenges for an ageing population","volume":"120","author":"Aw","year":"2007","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9030682","article-title":"MSC-based therapies-new perspectives for the injured lung","volume":"9","author":"Behnke","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Med."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(13)70259-5","article-title":"The effect of intravenous interferon-beta-1a (FP-1201) on lung CD73 expression and on acute respiratory distress syndrome mortality: an open-label study","volume":"2","author":"Bellingan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"B9","unstructured":"BhimrajA.\n            MorganR. L.\n            ShumakerA. H.\n            LavergneV.\n            BadenL.\n            ChengV. C. C.\n          Infectious Diseases Society of America Guidelines on the Treatment and Management of Patients with COVID-19, v 1.0.3. Apr.11, 20202020"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.03.21.20040691","article-title":"Meplazumab treats COVID-19 pneumonia: an open-labelled, concurrent controlled add-on clinical trial","author":"Bian","year":"2020","journal-title":"medRxiv."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2013.08.008","article-title":"Arbidol inhibits viral entry by interfering with clathrin-dependent trafficking","volume":"100","author":"Blaising","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antiviral Res."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2014.04.006","article-title":"Arbidol as a broad-spectrum antiviral: An update","volume":"107","author":"Blaising","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antiviral Res."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.4172\/1948-5964.1000173","article-title":"Azithromycin inhibits the replication of Zika virus","volume":"10","author":"Bosseboeuf","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Antivirals Antiretrovirals"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.48.3.747-752.2004","article-title":"Antibiotic susceptibility of Tropheryma whipplei in MRC5 cells","volume":"48","author":"Boulos","year":"2004","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eng.2020.03.007","article-title":"Experimental Treatment with Favipiravir for COVID-19: An Open-Label Control Study","author":"Cai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eng. (Beijing)."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104787","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2020.104787","article-title":"The FDA-approved Drug Ivermectin inhibits the replication of SARS-CoV-2 in vitro","volume":"178","author":"Caly","year":"2020","journal-title":"Antiviral Res."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1787","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2001282","article-title":"A Trial of Lopinavir-Ritonavir in Adults Hospitalized with Severe Covid-19","volume":"382","author":"Cao","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-0308-3","article-title":"COVID-19: immunopathology and its implications for therapy","volume":"20","author":"Cao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"B19","unstructured":"CascellaM.\n            RajnikM.\n            CuomoA.\n            DulebohnS. C.\n            NapoliR. D.\n          Treasure Island (FLStatPearls PublishingFeatures, Evaluation and Treatment Coronavirus (COVID-19). [Updated 2020 Aug 10]. In: StatPearls [Internet]2020"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1904","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiv392","article-title":"Treatment With Lopinavir\/Ritonavir or Interferon-\u03b21b Improves Outcome of MERS-CoV Infection in a Nonhuman Primate Model of Common Marmoset","volume":"212","author":"Chan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3625","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI126363","article-title":"IFN-I response timing relative to virus replication determines MERS coronavirus infection outcomes","volume":"130","author":"Channappanavar","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Invest."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25681","article-title":"Emerging coronaviruses: Genome structure, replication, and pathogenesis","volume":"92","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.03.17.20037432","article-title":"Favipiravir versus Arbidol for COVID-19: A Randomized Clinical Trial","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"medRxiv."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.3785\/j.issn.1008-9292.2020.03.03","article-title":"A pilot study of hydroxychloroquine in treatment of patients with common coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19)","volume":"49","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Zhejiang Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-004-1271-9","article-title":"Use of convalescent plasma therapy in SARS patients in Hong Kong","volume":"24","author":"Cheng","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105923","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2020.105923","article-title":"Chloroquine for the 2019 novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2","volume":"55","author":"Colson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1016\/S1471-4906(01)02060-9","article-title":"The biology of human natural killer-cell subsets","volume":"22","author":"Cooper","year":"2001","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.2165\/00063030-200216040-00005","article-title":"Anakinra","volume":"16","author":"Cvetkovic","year":"2002","journal-title":"Bio Drugs"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/82_2017_25","article-title":"Host Factors in Coronavirus Replication","volume":"419","author":"de Wilde","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6771","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1922083117","article-title":"Prophylactic and therapeutic remdesivir (GS-5734) treatment in the rhesus macaque model of MERS-CoV infection","volume":"117","author":"de Wit","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1007\/s12098-020-03322-y","article-title":"Pathophysiology of COVID-19: Why Children Fare Better than Adults","volume":"87","author":"Dhochak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Indian J. Pediatr."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.5582\/ddt.2020.01012","article-title":"Discovering drugs to treat coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)","volume":"14","author":"Dong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Drug Discovery Ther."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1002\/cpt.1844","article-title":"Favipiravir: pharmacokinetics and concerns about clinical trials for 2019-nCoV infection","volume":"108","author":"Du","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9490","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2004168117","article-title":"Effectiveness of convalescent plasma therapy in severe COVID-19 patients","volume":"117","author":"Duan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-2438-7_1","article-title":"Coronaviruses: an overview of their replication and pathogenesis","volume":"1282","author":"Fehr","year":"2015","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2020.108448","article-title":"COVID-19: Immunology and treatment options","volume":"215","author":"Felsenstein","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9812","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01012-07","article-title":"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus ORF6 antagonizes STAT1 function by sequestering nuclear import factors on the rough endoplasmic reticulum\/Golgi membrane","volume":"81","author":"Frieman","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.2183\/pjab.93.027","article-title":"Favipiravir (T-705), a broad spectrum inhibitor of viral RNA polymerase","volume":"93","author":"Furuta","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Jpn. Acad. Ser. B Phys. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6915e3","article-title":"Hospitalization rates and characteristics of patients hospitalized with laboratory-confirmed coronavirus disease 2019\u2014COVID-NET, 14 States, March 1-30, 2020. MMWR Morb","volume":"69","author":"Garg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial","volume":"56","author":"Gautret","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101663","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2020.101663","article-title":"Clinical and microbiological effect of a combination of hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin in 80 COVID-19 patients with at least a six-day follow up: A pilot observational study","volume":"34","author":"Gautret","year":"2020","journal-title":"Travel Med. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2411","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2012410","article-title":"Observational Study of Hydroxychloroquine in Hospitalized Patients with Covid-19","volume":"382","author":"Geleris","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4773","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.AC120.013056","article-title":"The antiviral compound remdesivir potently inhibits RNA-dependent RNA polymerase from Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus","volume":"295","author":"Gordon","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2327","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2007016","article-title":"Compassionate Use of Remdesivir for Patients with Severe Covid-19","volume":"382","author":"Grein","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1186\/s40779-020-00240-0","article-title":"The origin, transmission and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak - an update on the status","volume":"7","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mil. Med. Res."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2020.100433","article-title":"COVID-19 in 7780 pediatric patients: A systematic review","volume":"24","author":"Hoang","year":"2020","journal-title":"E. Clin. Med."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciq106","article-title":"Convalescent plasma treatment reduced mortality in patients with severe pandemic influenza A (H1N1) 2009 virus infection","volume":"52","author":"Hung","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1254\/fpj.122.527","article-title":"Pharmacological effects of ivermectin, an antiparasitic agent for intestinal strongyloidiasis: Its mode of action and clinical efficacy","volume":"122","author":"Ikeda","year":"2003","journal-title":"Folia Pharmacol. Japonica"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-032712-100001","article-title":"Control of human viral infections by natural killer cells","volume":"31","author":"Jost","year":"2013","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2380-z","article-title":"Human neutralizing antibodies elicited by SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"584","author":"Ju","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1617020114","article-title":"Structural basis of influenza virus fusion inhibition by the antiviral drug Arbidol","volume":"114","author":"Kadam","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.aivir.2016.08.006","article-title":"Interaction of SARS and MERS Coronaviruses with the Antiviral Interferon Response","volume":"96","author":"Kindler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Virus Res."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.3851\/IMP3243","article-title":"Challenges of convalescent plasma infusion therapy in Middle East respiratory coronavirus infection: a single centre experience","volume":"23","author":"Ko","year":"2018","journal-title":"Antivir. Ther."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01782-06","article-title":"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus open reading frame (ORF) 3b, ORF 6, and nucleocapsid proteins function as interferon antagonists","volume":"81","author":"Kopecky-Bromberg","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.14336\/AD.2020.0228","article-title":"Transplantation of ACE2 Mesenchymal stem cells improves the outcomes of patients with COVID-19 pneumonia","volume":"11","author":"Leng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aging Dis."},{"key":"B56","first-page":"102","article-title":"Effects of aging on the respiratory system","volume":"27","author":"Levitzky","year":"1984","journal-title":"Physiologist"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1681","DOI":"10.3892\/mmr.2016.5416","article-title":"Low levels of TGF-\u03b21 enhance human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cell fibronectin production and extend survival time in a rat model of lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25685","article-title":"Coronavirus infections and immune responses","volume":"92","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2020.04.026","article-title":"Umifenovir treatment is not associated with improved outcomes in patients with coronavirus disease 2019: A retrospective study","volume":"26","author":"Lian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1335","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.4344","article-title":"Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Italy","volume":"323","author":"Livingston","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.03.07.982264","article-title":"Type I interferon susceptibility distinguishes SARS-CoV-2 from SARS-CoV","author":"Lokugamage","year":"2020","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-0897-1","article-title":"Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in patients with COVID-19","volume":"26","author":"Long","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1088","DOI":"10.1111\/apa.15270","article-title":"Systematic review of COVID-19 in children shows milder cases and a better prognosis than adults","volume":"109","author":"Ludvigsson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiu396","article-title":"The effectiveness of convalescent plasma and hyperimmune immunoglobulin for the treatment of severe acute respiratory infections of viral etiology: a systematic review and exploratory meta-analysis","volume":"211","author":"Mair-Jenkins","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30628-0","article-title":"COVID-19: consider cytokine storm syndromes and immunosuppression","volume":"395","author":"Mehta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.2147\/CCID.S47784","article-title":"Itolizumab - a humanized anti-CD6 monoclonal antibody with a better side effects profile for the treatment of psoriasis","volume":"8","author":"Menon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Cosmet. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medmal.2020.03.006","article-title":"No Evidence of Rapid Antiviral Clearance or Clinical Benefit with the Combination of Hydroxychloroquine and Azithromycin in Patients with Severe COVID-19","volume":"50","author":"Molina","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Mal. Infect."},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2249","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.46.7.2249-2253.2002","article-title":"In vitro antiviral interaction of lopinavir with other protease inhibitors","volume":"46","author":"Molla","year":"2002","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2293","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1910993","article-title":"A randomized, controlled trial of Ebola virus disease therapeutics","volume":"381","author":"Mulangu","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.4252\/wjsc.v6.i2.195","article-title":"Umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells: Their advantages and potential clinical utility","volume":"6","author":"Nagamura-Inoue","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Stem Cells"},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"165878","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2020.165878","article-title":"Insights into SARS-CoV-2 genome, structure, evolution, pathogenesis and therapies: Structural genomics approach","volume":"1866","author":"Naqvi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Basis Dis."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1090","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(14)70920-X","article-title":"Ribavirin and interferon alfa-2a for severe Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection: a retrospective cohort study","volume":"14","author":"Omrani","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s40520-020-01631-y","article-title":"COVID-19 and the elderly: insights into pathogenesis and clinical decision-making","volume":"2020","author":"Perrotta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aging Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1097\/PRA.0000000000000475","article-title":"The 5% of the Population at High Risk for Severe COVID-19 Infection Is Identifiable and Needs to Be Taken Into Account When Reopening the Economy","volume":"26","author":"Preskorn","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Pract."},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa248","article-title":"Dysregulation of immune response in patients with Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) in Wuhan, China","volume":"71","author":"Qin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25961","article-title":"Convalescent plasma transfusion for the treatment of COVID-19: Systematic review","author":"Rajendran","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1512","DOI":"10.1128\/aac.34.8.1512","article-title":"Bactericidal effect of doxycycline associated with lysosomotropic agents on Coxiella burnetii in P388D1 cells","volume":"34","author":"Raoult","year":"1990","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1881","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1003833","article-title":"Azithromycin and the risk of cardiovascular death","volume":"366","author":"Ray","year":"2012","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.3390\/cells9051267","article-title":"A Structural View of SARS-CoV-2 RNA Replication Machinery: RNA Synthesis, Proofreading and Final Capping","volume":"9","author":"Romano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cells"},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-020-05991-x","article-title":"Clinical predictors of mortality due to COVID-19 based on an analysis of data of 150 patients from Wuhan, China","volume":"46","author":"Ruan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2004.08.011","article-title":"Interferon-beta and interferon-gamma synergistically inhibit the replication of severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV)","volume":"329","author":"Sainz","year":"2004","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.22541\/au.158801943.39428086\/v4","article-title":"Pathophysiology and Potential Therapeutic Candidates for COVID-19: A Poorly Understood Arena","author":"Samaddar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Authorea."},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.14.4.778-809.2001","article-title":"Antiviral actions of interferons","volume":"14","author":"Samuel","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-032713-120231","article-title":"Interferon-stimulated genes: a complex web of host defenses","volume":"32","author":"Schneider","year":"2014","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-13940-6","article-title":"Comparative therapeutic efficacy of remdesivir and combination lopinavir, ritonavir, and interferon beta against MERS-CoV","volume":"11","author":"Sheahan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1007\/s12519-020-00344-6","article-title":"Diagnosis and treatment of 2019 novel coronavirus infection in children: a pressing issue","volume":"16","author":"Shen","year":"2020","journal-title":"World J. Pediatr."},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1582","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.4783","article-title":"Treatment of 5 Critically Ill Patients With COVID-19 With Convalescent Plasma","volume":"323","author":"Shen","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1525","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0030343","article-title":"SARS: systematic review of treatment effects","volume":"3","author":"Stockman","year":"2006","journal-title":"PloS Med."},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.05.00002105","article-title":"Long-term clearance from small airways decreases with age","volume":"26","author":"Svartengren","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104792","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2020.104792","article-title":"Coronavirus membrane fusion mechanism offers a potential target for antiviral development","volume":"178","author":"Tang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Antiviral Res."},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-0311-8","article-title":"The trinity of COVID-19: immunity, inflammation and intervention","volume":"20","author":"Tay","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2005.05.007","article-title":"Nuclear\/nucleolar localization properties of C-terminal nucleocapsid protein of SARS coronavirus","volume":"114","author":"Timani","year":"2005","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1038\/icb.2010.47","article-title":"Immunosuppressive properties of human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells: role of B7-H1 and IDO","volume":"88","author":"Tipnis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Immunol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2657","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21072657","article-title":"A Review of SARS-CoV-2 and the Ongoing Clinical Trials","volume":"21","author":"Tu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"910","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2020.05.002","article-title":"Immunology of COVID-19: Current State of the Science","volume":"52","author":"Vabret","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B96","volume-title":"SIAARTI: Raccomandazioni di etica clinica per l\u2019ammissione a trattamenti intensivi e per la loro sospensione, in condizioni eccezionali di squilibrio tra necessit\u00e0 e risorse disponibili - versione 01","author":"Vergano","year":"2020"},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2020.102139","article-title":"Rethinking high-risk groups in COVID-19","volume":"42","author":"Vishnevetsky","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1038\/ni1582","article-title":"Functions of natural killer cells","volume":"9","author":"Vivier","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1042\/BJ20120150","article-title":"Ivermectin is a specific inhibitor of importin alpha\/beta-mediated nuclear import able to inhibit replication of HIV-1 and dengue virus","volume":"443","author":"Wagstaff","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1007\/s10456-004-8272-2","article-title":"Biological activity of bevacizumab, a humanized anti-VEGF antibody in vitro","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Angiogenesis"},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2020.03.019","article-title":"Coronavirus disease 2019 in elderly patients: Characteristics and prognostic factors based on 4-week follow-up","volume":"80","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"B102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.03.14.988345","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 invades host cells via a novel route: CD147-spike protein","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"bioRxiv."},{"key":"B103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1007\/s12250-020-00212-7","article-title":"A Unique Protease Cleavage Site Predicted in the Spike Protein of the Novel Pneumonia Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Potentially Related to Viral Transmissibility","volume":"35","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Virol. Sin."},{"key":"B104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2020.02.001","article-title":"Genome Composition and Divergence of the Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Originating in China","volume":"27","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"B105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.03.30.20047365","article-title":"Neutralizing antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in a COVID-19 recovered patient cohort and their implications","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"MedRxiv."},{"key":"B106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2015.00553","article-title":"Nucleocytoplasmic transport of nucleocapsid proteins of enveloped RNA viruses","volume":"6","author":"Wulan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"B107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(20)30076-X","article-title":"Pathological findings of COVID-19 associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome","volume":"8","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"B108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10970","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2005615117","article-title":"Effective treatment of severe COVID-19 patients with tocilizumab","volume":"117","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"B109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25729","article-title":"A systematic review of lopinavir therapy for SARS coronavirus and MERS coronavirus-A possible reference for coronavirus disease-19 treatment option","volume":"92","author":"Yao","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"B110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2020.108427","article-title":"COVID-19 pathophysiology: A review","volume":"215","author":"Yuki","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"B111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1307","DOI":"10.1182\/bloodadvances.2020001907","article-title":"First case of COVID-19 in a patient with multiple myeloma successfully treated with tocilizumab","volume":"4","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Blood Adv."},{"key":"B112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1678","DOI":"10.7150\/ijbs.45053","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2: an Emerging Coronavirus that Causes a Global Threat","volume":"16","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"B113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd.2015.37","article-title":"Coronaviruses- drug discovery and therapeutic options","volume":"15","author":"Zumla","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Pharmacology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/article\/10.3389\/fphar.2020.585888\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,17]],"date-time":"2020-09-17T09:26:14Z","timestamp":1600334774000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/article\/10.3389\/fphar.2020.585888\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,17]]},"references-count":113,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fphar.2020.585888"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fphar.2020.585888","relation":{},"ISSN":["1663-9812"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1663-9812","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,17]]},"article-number":"585888"}}