{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T04:32:16Z","timestamp":1790137936181,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":180,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,8]],"date-time":"2021-03-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615161600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Pharmacol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>COVID-19 pandemic has spread worldwide at an exponential rate affecting millions of people instantaneously. Currently, various drugs are under investigation to treat an enormously increasing number of COVID-19 patients. This dreadful situation clearly demands an efficient strategy to quickly identify drugs for the successful treatment of COVID-19. Hence, drug repurposing is an effective approach for the rapid discovery of frontline arsenals to fight against COVID-19. Successful application of this approach has resulted in the repurposing of some clinically approved drugs as potential anti-SARS-CoV-2 candidates. Several of these drugs are either antimalarials, antivirals, antibiotics or corticosteroids and they have been repurposed based on their potential to negate virus or reduce lung inflammation. Large numbers of clinical trials have been registered to evaluate the effectiveness and clinical safety of these drugs. Till date, a few clinical studies are complete and the results are primary. WHO also conducted an international, multi-country, open-label, randomized trials-a solidarity trial for four antiviral drugs. However, solidarity trials have few limitations like no placebos were used, additionally any drug may show effectiveness for a particular population in a region which may get neglected in solidarity trial analysis. The ongoing randomized clinical trials can provide reliable long-term follow-up results that will establish both clinical safety and clinical efficacy of these drugs with respect to different regions, populations and may aid up to worldwide COVID-19 treatment research. This review presents a comprehensive update on majorly repurposed drugs namely chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, remdesivir, lopinavir-ritonavir, favipiravir, ribavirin, azithromycin, umifenovir, oseltamivir as well as convalescent plasma therapy used against SARS-CoV-2. The review also summarizes the data recorded on the mechanism of anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity of these repurposed drugs along with the preclinical and clinical findings, therapeutic regimens, pharmacokinetics, and drug-drug interactions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.632677","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,8]],"date-time":"2021-03-08T06:28:27Z","timestamp":1615184907000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":78,"title":["An Update on Antiviral Therapy Against SARS-CoV-2: How Far Have We Come?"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Omkar","family":"Indari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shweta","family":"Jakhmola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elangovan","family":"Manivannan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hem Chandra","family":"Jha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102875","DOI":"10.1016\/j.transci.2020.102875","article-title":"Clinical efficacy of convalescent plasma for treatment of COVID-19 infections: results of a multicenter clinical study","volume":"59","author":"Abolghasemi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transfus. Apher. Sci."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2049936120947517","DOI":"10.1177\/2049936120947517","article-title":"Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine as a repurposed agent against COVID-19: a narrative review","volume":"7","author":"Acharya","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"m3939","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.m3939","article-title":"Convalescent plasma in the management of moderate covid-19 in adults in India: open label phase II multicentre randomised controlled trial (PLACID Trial)","volume":"371","author":"Agarwal","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e00221-18","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00221-18","article-title":"Coronavirus susceptibility to the antiviral remdesivir (GS-5734) is mediated by the viral polymerase and the proofreading exoribonuclease","volume":"9","author":"Agostini","year":"2018","journal-title":"MBio"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e002","DOI":"10.4172\/2329-6887.s2-e002","article-title":"Advantages and challenges in drug Re-profiling","author":"Agrawal","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Pharmacovigilance"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e149","DOI":"10.3346\/jkms.2020.35.e149","article-title":"Use of convalescent plasma therapy in two COVID-19 patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome in korea","volume":"35","author":"Ahn","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Korean. Med. Sci."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101615","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2020.101615","article-title":"remdesivir as a possible therapeutic option for the COVID-19","volume":"34","author":"Al-Tawfiq","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trav. Med. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2020.100128","article-title":"Current knowledge about the antivirals remdesivir (GS-5734) and GS-441524 as therapeutic options for coronaviruses","volume":"9","author":"Amirian","year":"2020","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.06.099","article-title":"Treatment with hydroxychloroquine, azithromycin, and combination in patients hospitalized with COVID-19","volume":"97","author":"Arshad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.22270\/jddt.v10i4-s.4313","article-title":"Remdesivir for COVID-19: a review of pharmacology, mechanism of action, in-vitro activity and clinical use based on available case studies","volume":"10","author":"Badgujar","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Ther."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1177\/106002809202601014","article-title":"Azithromycin: the first azalide antibiotic","volume":"26","author":"Ballow","year":"1992","journal-title":"Ann. Pharmacother."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1813","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2007764","article-title":"Remdesivir for the treatment of covid-19 - final report","volume":"383","author":"Beigel","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e008798","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCEP.120.008798","article-title":"Lopinavir-ritonavir treatment for COVID-19 infection in intensive care unit: risk of bradycardia","volume":"13","author":"Beyls","year":"2020","journal-title":"Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2014.04.006","article-title":"Arbidol as a broad-spectrum antiviral: an update","volume":"107","author":"Blaising","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101738","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2020.101861","article-title":"Early treatment of COVID-19 patients with hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin: a retrospective analysis of 1061 cases in Marseille, France (2020)","volume":"35","author":"Bonny","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trav. Med. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e208857","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2020.8857","article-title":"Effect of high vs low doses of chloroquine diphosphate as adjunctive therapy for patients hospitalized with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection: a randomized clinical trial","volume":"3","author":"Borba","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"B17","unstructured":"08-11-2005 - overview of oseltamivir and key points | CBN article. Clinicians\u2019 biosecurity news | johns hopkins center for health security\n            BorioL. L.\n            TonerE.\n            BartlettJ.\n          2018"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2003.09.005","article-title":"In vitro inhibition of Chikungunya and Semliki Forest viruses replication by antiviral compounds: synergistic effect of interferon-alpha and ribavirin combination","volume":"61","author":"Briolant","year":"2004","journal-title":"Antivir. Res"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104541","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2019.104541","article-title":"Broad spectrum antiviral remdesivir inhibits human endemic and zoonotic deltacoronaviruses with a highly divergent RNA dependent RNA polymerase","volume":"169","author":"Brown","year":"2019","journal-title":"Antivir. Res"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eng.2020.03.007","article-title":"Experimental treatment with favipiravir for COVID-19: an open-label control study","volume":"6","author":"Cai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Est. Acad. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abd2985","article-title":"Neuropilin-1 facilitates SARS-CoV-2 cell entry and infectivity","volume":"370","author":"Cantuti-Castelvetri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1787","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2001282","article-title":"A trial of lopinavir-ritonavir in adults hospitalized with severe covid-19","volume":"382","author":"Cao","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1007\/s40266-020-00812-8","article-title":"Drug-drug interactions and prescription appropriateness in patients with COVID-19: a retrospective analysis from a reference hospital in northern Italy","volume":"37","author":"Cattaneo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Drugs Aging"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2041","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2019014","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine with or without azithromycin in mild-to-moderate covid-19","volume":"383","author":"Cavalcanti","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.2147\/tcrm.s3285","article-title":"Lopinavir\/ritonavir in the treatment of HIV-1 infection: a review","volume":"4","author":"Chandwani","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ther. Clin. Risk Manag."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1777","DOI":"10.1124\/dmd.105.003673","article-title":"Disposition of flavonoids via recycling: comparison of intestinal versus hepatic disposition","volume":"33","author":"Chen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Drug Metab. Dispos."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25681","article-title":"Emerging coronaviruses: genome structure, replication, and pathogenesis","volume":"92","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmii.2020.03.032","article-title":"Lopinavir\/ritonavir did not shorten the duration of SARS CoV-2 shedding in patients with mild pneumonia in Taiwan","volume":"53","author":"Cheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2705","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmcl.2012.02.105","article-title":"Synthesis and antiviral activity of a series of 1'-substituted 4-aza-7,9-dideazaadenosine C-nucleosides","volume":"22","author":"Cho","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1136\/thorax.2003.012658","article-title":"Role of lopinavir\/ritonavir in the treatment of SARS: initial virological and clinical findings","volume":"59","author":"Chu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"B31","unstructured":"Azithromycin in hospitalized COVID-19 patients (AIC)"},{"key":"B32","unstructured":"Chloroquine covid-19\u2013list results"},{"key":"B33","unstructured":"Favipiravir covid-19"},{"key":"B34","unstructured":"Hydroxychloroquine covid-19"},{"key":"B35","unstructured":"Lopinavir covid-19"},{"key":"B36","unstructured":"Oseltamivir covid-19"},{"key":"B37","unstructured":"Remdesivir covid-19"},{"key":"B38","unstructured":"Ribavirin covid-19"},{"key":"B39","unstructured":"Umifenovir covid-19"},{"key":"B40","unstructured":"Convalescent plasma covid19"},{"key":"B41","unstructured":"Dexamethasone covid19"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMe2020388","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine for the prevention of covid-19 - searching for evidence","volume":"383","author":"Cohen","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0194868","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0194868","article-title":"MERS-CoV pathogenesis and antiviral efficacy of licensed drugs in human monocyte-derived antigen-presenting cells","volume":"13","author":"Cong","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1002\/cpt.1857","article-title":"Clinical pharmacology perspectives on the antiviral activity of azithromycin and use in COVID-19","volume":"108","author":"Damle","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2020.03.002","article-title":"Arbidol combined with LPV\/r versus LPV\/r alone against Corona Virus Disease 2019: a retrospective cohort study","volume":"9","author":"Deng","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105938","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2020.105938","article-title":"New insights on the antiviral effects of chloroquine against coronavirus: what to expect for COVID-19?","volume":"55","author":"Devaux","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1002\/cpt.1844","article-title":"Favipiravir: pharmacokinetics and concerns about clinical trials for 2019\u2010nCoV infection","volume":"108","author":"Du","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9490","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2004168117","article-title":"Effectiveness of convalescent plasma therapy in severe COVID-19 patients","volume":"117","author":"Duan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2007.09.004","article-title":"In vitro efficacy of ribavirin against canine distemper virus","volume":"77","author":"Elia","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1007\/s40262-020-00867-1","article-title":"Effect of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) inducers on exposure of P-gp substrates: review of clinical drug-drug interaction studies","volume":"59","author":"Elmeliegy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacokinet."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3366","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkaa331","article-title":"The impact of sofosbuvir\/daclatasvir or ribavirin in patients with severe COVID-19","volume":"75","author":"Eslami","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.3362","article-title":"Treatment with interferon-\u03b12b and ribavirin improves outcome in MERS-CoV-infected rhesus macaques","volume":"19","author":"Falzarano","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"B53","unstructured":"FDA EAU letter -Remdesivir -COVID-19"},{"key":"B54","unstructured":"FDA fact sheet -Chloroquine phosphate -COVID-19"},{"key":"B55","unstructured":"FDA fact sheet -Hydroxychloroquine sulfate -COVID-19"},{"key":"B56","unstructured":"FDA FACT sheet -Remdesivir -COVID-19"},{"key":"B57","unstructured":"FDA EAU letter \u2013Convalescent plasma"},{"key":"B58","unstructured":"FDA EAU clinical memorandom Convalescent plasma"},{"key":"B59","unstructured":"FDA Fact sheet \u2013Convalescent plasma -COVID-19"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8989","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-27224-4","article-title":"The antiviral drug arbidol inhibits zika virus","volume":"8","author":"Fink","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2020.08.022","article-title":"Effect of hydroxychloroquine with or without azithromycin on the mortality of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"27","author":"Fiolet","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cegh.2020.07.011","article-title":"Remdesivir and its antiviral activity against COVID-19: a systematic review","volume":"9","author":"Frediansyah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Epidemiol. Glob. Health"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(20)31862-6","article-title":"Azithromycin in addition to standard of care versus standard of care alone in the treatment of patients admitted to the hospital with severe COVID-19 in Brazil (COALITION II): a randomised clinical trial","volume":"396","author":"Furtado","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2013.09.015","article-title":"Favipiravir (T-705), a novel viral RNA polymerase inhibitor (2013)","volume":"100","author":"Furuta","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antivir. Res"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.2183\/pjab.93.027","article-title":"Favipiravir (T-705), a broad spectrum inhibitor of viral RNA polymerase","volume":"93","author":"Furuta","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Jpn. Acad. Ser. B Phys. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-22620-2","article-title":"Antiviral effect of ribavirin against HCV associated with increased frequency of G-to-A and C-to-U transitions in infectious cell culture model","volume":"8","author":"Galli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2020.106239","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial","volume":"57","author":"Gautret","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2411","DOI":"10.3410\/f.737908482.793576143","article-title":"Observational study of hydroxychloroquine in hospitalized patients with covid-19","volume":"382","author":"Geleris","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dki405","article-title":"Treating HCV with ribavirin analogues and ribavirin-like molecules","volume":"57","author":"Gish","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0227104","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0227104","article-title":"Preclinical evaluation of AT-527, a novel guanosine nucleotide prodrug with potent, pan-genotypic activity against hepatitis C virus","volume":"15","author":"Good","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3088","DOI":"10.1128\/aac.01667-08","article-title":"Susceptibility of highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza viruses to the neuraminidase inhibitor oseltamivir differs in vitro and in a mouse model","volume":"53","author":"Govorkova","year":"2009","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2015.07.003","article-title":"Alterations in favipiravir (T-705) pharmacokinetics and biodistribution in a hamster model of viral hemorrhagic fever","volume":"121","author":"Gowen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Antivir. Res"},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2702","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkaa195","article-title":"Lopinavir pharmacokinetics in COVID-19 patients","volume":"75","author":"Gregoire","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/07391102.2020.1754293","article-title":"A review on the cleavage priming of the spike protein on coronavirus by angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 and furin","volume":"2020","author":"Hasan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Biomol. Struct. Dyn."},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.2020006964","article-title":"Use of convalescent plasma in hospitalized patients with COVID-19: case series","volume":"136","author":"Hegerova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12725","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.0c01063","article-title":"Discovery of ketone-based covalent inhibitors of coronavirus 3CL proteases for the potential therapeutic treatment of COVID-19","volume":"63","author":"Hoffman","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.02.052","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor","volume":"181","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2021436","article-title":"Dexamethasone in hospitalized patients with covid-19 - preliminary report","author":"Horby","year":"","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2030","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehaa935","article-title":"Effect of hydroxychloroquine in hospitalized patients with covid-19","volume":"383","author":"Horby","year":"","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(20)32013-4","article-title":"Lopinavir\u2013ritonavir in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19 (RECOVERY): a randomised, controlled, open-label, platform trial","volume":"396","author":"Horby","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.26256","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of umifenovir for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"93","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1093\/jmcb\/mjaa014","article-title":"Treating COVID-19 with chloroquine","volume":"12","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mol. Cel Biol."},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2020.01071","article-title":"No statistically apparent difference in antiviral effectiveness observed among ribavirin plus interferon-alpha, lopinavir\/ritonavir plus interferon-alpha, and ribavirin plus lopinavir\/ritonavir plus interferon-alpha in patients with mild to moderate coronavirus disease 2019: results of a randomized, open-labeled prospective study","volume":"11","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1002\/psp4.12537","article-title":"Predictions of systemic, intracellular, and lung concentrations of azithromycin with different dosing regimens used in COVID-19 clinical trials","volume":"9","author":"Hughes","year":"2020","journal-title":"CPT Pharmacometrics Syst. Pharmacol."},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1695","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31042-4","article-title":"Triple combination of interferon beta-1b, lopinavir\u2013ritonavir, and ribavirin in the treatment of patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19: an open-label, randomised, phase 2 trial","volume":"395","author":"Hung","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5288","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.79.9.5288-5295.2005","article-title":"Identification of novel subgenomic RNAs and noncanonical transcription initiation signals of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus","volume":"79","author":"Hussain","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"B87","unstructured":"IBM Watson health products: system status2021"},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2365","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.8863","article-title":"Emergency use authorization of remdesivir: the need for a transparent distribution process","volume":"323","author":"Ison","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102982","DOI":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2020.102982","article-title":"Considerations for interactions of drugs used for the treatment of COVID-19 with anti-cancer treatments","volume":"151","author":"Jafari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol."},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2020.00984","article-title":"Comorbidity assessment is essential during COVID-19 treatment","volume":"11","author":"Jakhmola","year":"","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2137","DOI":"10.1007\/s42399-020-00522-7","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2, an underestimated pathogen of the nervous system","volume":"2","author":"Jakhmola","year":"","journal-title":"SN Compr. Clin. Med."},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e05706","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2020.e05706","article-title":"Recent updates on COVID-19: a holistic review","volume":"6","author":"Jakhmola","year":"","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmii.2020.03.034","article-title":"Treatment options for COVID-19: the reality and challenges (2020)","volume":"53","author":"Jean","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect."},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1888","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2020.06.028","article-title":"Safety update: COVID-19 convalescent plasma in 20,000 hospitalized patients","volume":"95","author":"Joyner","year":"","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"B95","unstructured":"Effect of convalescent plasma on mortality among hospitalized patients with COVID-19: initial three-month experience\n            JoynerM. J.\n            SenefeldJ. W.\n            KlassenS. A.\n            MillsJ. R.\n            JohnsonP. W.\n            TheelE. S."},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2031994","article-title":"Baricitinib plus remdesivir for hospitalized adults with covid-19","author":"Kalil","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26955","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2014441117","article-title":"Favipiravir at high doses has potent antiviral activity in SARS-CoV-2\u2212infected hamsters, whereas hydroxychloroquine lacks activity","volume":"117","author":"Kaptein","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00508-020-01720-y","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine versus lopinavir\/ritonavir in severe COVID-19 patients : results from a real-life patient cohort","author":"Karolyi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Wien. Klin. Wochenschr."},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3416","DOI":"10.1128\/aac.01509-08","article-title":"Antiviral activity of chloroquine against human coronavirus OC43 infection in newborn mice","volume":"53","author":"Keyaerts","year":"2009","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2004.08.085","article-title":"In vitro inhibition of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus by chloroquine","volume":"323","author":"Keyaerts","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2657","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkaa261","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of lopinavir\/ritonavir oral solution to treat COVID-19 in mechanically ventilated ICU patients","volume":"75","author":"L\u00ea","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"B102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-3527(08)60286-9","article-title":"The molecular biology of coronaviruses","volume":"48","author":"Lai","year":"1997","journal-title":"Adv. Virus Res."},{"key":"B103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa883","article-title":"Drug-induced liver injury in a COVID-19 patient: potential interaction of remdesivir with P-glycoprotein inhibitors","author":"Leegwater","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1943","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.79.3.1943-1947.2005","article-title":"The predominant mechanism by which ribavirin exerts its antiviral activity in vitro against flaviviruses and paramyxoviruses is mediated by inhibition of IMP dehydrogenase","volume":"79","author":"Leyssen","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"B105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2017.09.034","article-title":"Chloroquine, a FDA-approved drug, prevents zika virus infection and its associated congenital microcephaly in mice","volume":"24","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"B106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-virology-110615-042301","article-title":"Structure, function, and evolution of coronavirus spike proteins","volume":"3","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Virol."},{"key":"B107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.3410\/f.738066145.793578637","article-title":"Effect of convalescent plasma therapy on time to clinical improvement in patients with severe and life-threatening COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial","volume":"324","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"B108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"854","DOI":"10.1086\/527326","article-title":"Ribavirin reduces mortality in enterovirus 71-infected mice by decreasing viral replication","volume":"197","author":"Li","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2020.04.026","article-title":"Umifenovir treatment is not associated with improved outcomes in patients with coronavirus disease 2019: a retrospective study","volume":"26","author":"Lian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"B110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2033700","article-title":"Early high-titer plasma therapy to prevent severe covid-19 in older adults","author":"Libster","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1038\/s41421-020-0156-0","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine, a less toxic derivative of chloroquine, is effective in inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 infection in vitro","volume":"6","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Discov."},{"key":"B112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E734","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.200647","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of antiviral treatment for COVID-19 from evidence in studies of SARS-CoV-2 and other acute viral infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"192","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"CMAJ"},{"key":"B113","unstructured":"Interactions for colchicine and aspirin (as an antiplatelet COVID-19 adjunct therapy) are now on the checker2021"},{"key":"B114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26946","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2012294117","article-title":"Remdesivir targets a structurally analogous region of the Ebola virus and SARS-CoV-2 polymerases","volume":"117","author":"Lo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"B115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1007\/s40262-015-0364-1","article-title":"Ebola virus infection: review of the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of drugs considered for testing in human efficacy trials","volume":"55","author":"Madelain","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacokinet."},{"key":"B116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"m4120","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.m4120","article-title":"Covid-19: US approves remdesivir despite WHO trial showing lack of efficacy","volume":"371","author":"Mahase","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"B117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.02017-20","article-title":"Favipiravir and the need for early ambulatory treatment of SARS-CoV2 infection (COVID-19)","author":"McCullough","year":"2020","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"B118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamacardio.2020.1834","article-title":"Risk of QT interval prolongation associated with use of hydroxychloroquine with or without concomitant azithromycin among hospitalized patients testing positive for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)","author":"Mercuro","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Cardiol."},{"key":"B119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10010028","article-title":"Convalescent plasma transfusion for the treatment of COVID-19\u2014experience from Poland: a multicenter study","volume":"10","author":"Moniuszko-Malinowska","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Med. Res."},{"key":"B120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2018.04.026","article-title":"The nucleoside analog GS-441524 strongly inhibits feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) virus in tissue culture and experimental cat infection studies","volume":"219","author":"Murphy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"B121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4626279","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/4626279","article-title":"Life threatening severe QTc prolongation in patient with systemic lupus erythematosus due to hydroxychloroquine","volume":"2016","author":"O\u2019Laughlin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Case Rep. Cardiol."},{"key":"B122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-3-39","article-title":"In vitro inhibition of human influenza A virus replication by chloroquine","volume":"3","author":"Ooi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"B123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2023184","article-title":"Repurposed antiviral drugs for covid-19 - interim WHO solidarity trial results","author":"Pan","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B124","unstructured":"An evaluation report of Avigan (favipiravir), Toyama Chemical Co., Ltd2020"},{"key":"B125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107940","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2020.107940","article-title":"Remdesivir inhibits SARS-CoV-2 in human lung cells and chimeric SARS-CoV expressing the SARS-CoV-2 RNA polymerase in mice","volume":"32","author":"Pruijssers","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"B126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.2174\/1389200221999201208211537","article-title":"Metabolism and interactions of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine with human cytochrome P450 enzymes and drug transporters","volume":"21","author":"Rendic","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Drug Metab."},{"key":"B127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1080\/00498250210158221","article-title":"Inhibition of zaleplon metabolism by cimetidine in the human liver: in vitro studies with subcellular fractions and precision-cut liver slices","volume":"32","author":"Renwick","year":"2002","journal-title":"Xenobiotica"},{"key":"B128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2456-9","article-title":"Convergent antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in convalescent individuals","volume":"584","author":"Robbiani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0238681","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0238681","article-title":"Observational study of azithromycin in hospitalized patients with COVID-19","volume":"15","author":"Rodr\u00edguez-Molinero","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2493","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.8630","article-title":"Association of treatment with hydroxychloroquine or azithromycin with in-hospital mortality in patients with COVID-19 in New York state","volume":"323","author":"Rosenberg","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"B131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40495-020-00231-8","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine in COVID-19: potential mechanism of action against SARS-CoV-2","author":"Satarker","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Pharmacol. Rep."},{"key":"B132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00102014","article-title":"Novel antiviral properties of azithromycin in cystic fibrosis airway epithelial cells","volume":"45","author":"Sch\u00f6gler","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"B133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1021\/jm401492x","article-title":"Development of novel potent orally bioavailable oseltamivir derivatives active against resistant influenza A","volume":"57","author":"Schade","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"B134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1208\/s12248-020-00465-w","article-title":"Intracellular ABCB1 as a possible mechanism to explain the synergistic effect of hydroxychloroquine-azithromycin combination in COVID-19 therapy","volume":"22","author":"Scherrmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"AAPS J."},{"key":"B135","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/postgradmedj-2020-138093","article-title":"COVID-19 and the burning issue of drug interaction: never forget the ECG","author":"Sciaccaluga","year":"2020","journal-title":"Postgrad. Med. J."},{"key":"B136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-13940-6","article-title":"Comparative therapeutic efficacy of remdesivir and combination lopinavir, ritonavir, and interferon beta against MERS-CoV","volume":"11","author":"Sheahan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"B137","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2020.03.005","article-title":"COVID-19 infection: origin, transmission, and characteristics of human coronaviruses","author":"Shereen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"B138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1447","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-007-0974-5","article-title":"Antiviral activity of arbidol against influenza A virus, respiratory syncytial virus, rhinovirus, coxsackie virus and adenovirus in vitro and in vivo","volume":"152","author":"Shi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"B139","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-020-01412-z","article-title":"Favipiravir versus other antiviral or standard of care for COVID-19 treatment: a rapid systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"17","author":"Shrestha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"B140","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11876","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0505577102","article-title":"Inhibitors of cathepsin L prevent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus entry","volume":"102","author":"Simmons","year":"2005","journal-title":"PNAS"},{"key":"B141","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2031304","article-title":"A randomized trial of convalescent plasma in covid-19 severe pneumonia","author":"Simonovich","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B142","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsx.2020.05.018","article-title":"Remdesivir in COVID-19: a critical review of pharmacology, pre-clinical and clinical studies","volume":"14","author":"Singh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Syndr."},{"key":"B143","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2020.104779","article-title":"3CLpro inhibitors as a potential therapeutic option for COVID-19: available evidence and ongoing clinical trials","volume":"156","author":"Sisay","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"B144","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2020123","DOI":"10.23750\/abm.v91i4.10216","article-title":"Treatment of COVID-19 pregnancy with hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin: a case report","volume":"91","author":"Sisti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Biomedica"},{"key":"B145","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1177\/095632020101200602","article-title":"Antiviral activity and mode of action studies of ribavirin and mycophenolic acid against orthopoxviruses in vitro","volume":"12","author":"Smee","year":"2001","journal-title":"Antivir. Chem. Chemother."},{"key":"B146","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10328","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.19.10328-10335.2004","article-title":"Synthesis and characterization of a native, oligomeric form of recombinant severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus spike glycoprotein","volume":"78","author":"Song","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"B147","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s42399-020-00619-z","article-title":"Impact of gastrointestinal symptoms in COVID-19: a molecular approach","author":"Sonkar","year":"2020","journal-title":"SN Compr. Clin. Med."},{"key":"B148","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1048","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.16349","article-title":"Effect of remdesivir vs standard care on clinical status at 11 Days in patients with moderate COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial","volume":"324","author":"Spinner","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"B149","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1067\/mcp.2000.110977","article-title":"Developmental changes in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of warfarin enantiomers in Japanese children","volume":"68","author":"Takahashi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"B150","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.08.047","article-title":"Case studies of SARS-CoV-2 treated with favipiravir among patients in critical or severe condition","volume":"100","author":"Takahashi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B151","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2017.11.017","article-title":"An evaluation of chloroquine as a broad-acting antiviral against hand, foot and mouth disease","volume":"149","author":"Tan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"B152","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.m1849","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine in patients with mainly mild to moderate coronavirus disease 2019: open label, randomised controlled trial","volume":"2020","author":"Tang","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"B153","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2020.106114","article-title":"Ribavirin therapy for severe COVID-19: a retrospective cohort study","volume":"56","author":"Tong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"B154","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e00473-12","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00473-12","article-title":"Genomic characterization of a newly discovered coronavirus associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome in humans","volume":"3","author":"van Boheemen","year":"2012","journal-title":"MBio"},{"key":"B155","first-page":"439","article-title":"Adverse effects of lopinavir\/ritonavir in critically ill patients with COVID-19","volume":"80","author":"Vecchio","year":"2020","journal-title":"Medicina"},{"key":"B156","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e7967","DOI":"10.5867\/medwave.2020.06.7966","article-title":"Lopinavir-ritonavir for COVID-19: a living systematic review","volume":"20","author":"Verdugo-Paiva","year":"2020","journal-title":"Medwave"},{"key":"B157","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2020.00241","article-title":"Three novel COVID-19 pneumonia cases successfully treated with lopinavir\/ritonavir","volume":"7","author":"Wada","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"B158","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.1585","article-title":"Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia in wuhan, China","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"B159","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1038\/s41422-020-0282-0","article-title":"Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro","volume":"30","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"B160","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e52","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30558-4","article-title":"Comorbidities and multi-organ injuries in the treatment of COVID-19","volume":"395","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B161","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1038\/s41421-020-0169-8","article-title":"The anti-influenza virus drug, arbidol is an efficient inhibitor of SARS-CoV-2 in vitro","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cel Discov."},{"key":"B162","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1569","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31022-9","article-title":"Remdesivir in adults with severe COVID-19: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial (2020)","volume":"395","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B163","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"i5","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dki018","article-title":"Oseltamivir (Tamiflu) and its potential for use in the event of an influenza pandemic","volume":"55","author":"Ward","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"B164","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E012","DOI":"10.3760\/cma.j.cn112138-20200227-00147","article-title":"Real-world efficacy and safety of lopinavir\/ritonavir and arbidol in treating with COVID-19 : an observational cohort study","volume":"59","author":"Wen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Zhonghua Nei Ke Za Zhi"},{"key":"B165","unstructured":"Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) situation reports"},{"key":"B166","unstructured":"Solidarity clinical trial for COVID-19 treatments"},{"key":"B167","unstructured":"SARS-CoV-2 variants"},{"key":"B168","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.2020007079","article-title":"Improved clinical symptoms and mortality among patients with severe or critical COVID-19 after convalescent plasma transfusion","volume":"136","author":"Xia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"B169","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-020-03137-5","article-title":"Effect of favipiravir and an anti-inflammatory strategy for COVID-19","volume":"24","author":"Yamamura","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"B170","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00799-2020","article-title":"Factors associated with prolonged viral shedding and impact of Lopinavir\/Ritonavir treatment in hospitalised non-critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection","author":"Yan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"B171","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1361","DOI":"10.1021\/acsmedchemlett.0c00316","article-title":"Advantages of the parent nucleoside GS-441524 over remdesivir for covid-19 treatment","volume":"11","author":"Yan","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Med. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"B172","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25729","article-title":"A systematic review of lopinavir therapy for SARS coronavirus and MERS coronavirus\u2014a possible reference for coronavirus disease\u201019 treatment option","volume":"92","author":"Yao","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"B173","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa237","article-title":"In Vitro antiviral activity and projection of optimized dosing design of hydroxychloroquine for the treatment of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)","author":"Yao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B174","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3390","DOI":"10.26355\/eurrev_202003_20706","article-title":"Clinical efficacy of lopinavir\/ritonavir in the treatment of Coronavirus disease 2019","volume":"24","author":"Ye","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"B175","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1007\/s00011-020-01342-0","article-title":"The correlation between viral clearance and biochemical outcomes of 94 COVID-19 infected discharged patients","volume":"69","author":"Yuan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"B176","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100618","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpcardiol.2020.100618","article-title":"COVID-19 and multiorgan response","volume":"45","author":"Zaim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Probl. Cardiol."},{"key":"B177","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11596-020-2203-3","article-title":"Potential of arbidol for post-exposure prophylaxis of COVID-19 transmission\u2014a preliminary report of a retrospective cohort study","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Sci."},{"key":"B178","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2012-7","article-title":"A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin","volume":"579","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B179","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2020.03.060","article-title":"Arbidol monotherapy is superior to lopinavir\/ritonavir in treating COVID-19","volume":"81","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"B180","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1097\/FTD.0000000000000766","article-title":"Important interactions of immunosuppressants with experimental therapies for novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19): how to act","volume":"42","author":"Zijp","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ther. Drug Monit."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Pharmacology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fphar.2021.632677\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,8]],"date-time":"2021-03-08T06:28:47Z","timestamp":1615184927000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fphar.2021.632677\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,8]]},"references-count":180,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fphar.2021.632677"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fphar.2021.632677","relation":{},"ISSN":["1663-9812"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1663-9812","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,8]]},"article-number":"632677"}}