{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T10:35:32Z","timestamp":1792751732855,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,21]],"date-time":"2022-02-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1645401600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Pharmacol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Vitamin D is a hormone regulating the immune system and playing a pivotal role in responses to microbial infections. It regulates inflammatory processes by influencing the transcription of immune-response genes in macrophages, T cells, and dendritic cells. The proven role of vitamin D in many infectious diseases of the respiratory tract indicated that vitamin D should also play a role in SARS-CoV-2 infection. Vitamin D inhibits cytokine storm by switching the pro-inflammatory Th1 and Th17 to the anti-inflammatory Th2 and Treg response. Vitamin D is therefore expected to play a role in preventing, relieving symptoms, or treating SARS-CoV-2 infection symptoms, including severe pneumonia. There are several possible mechanisms by which vitamin D may reduce the risk of COVID-19 infection, such as induction of the transcription of cathelicidin and defensin. Also a nongenomic antiviral action of vitamin D and lumisterol, the molecule closely related to vitamin D, was reported. Despite this enormous progress, currently, there is still insufficient scientific evidence to support the claim that vitamin D supplementation may help treat COVID-19 infection. The pandemic restrictions were also shown to impact vitamin D uptake by limiting exposure to sunlight.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.836738","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,21]],"date-time":"2022-02-21T11:17:02Z","timestamp":1645442222000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":46,"title":["The Role of Vitamin D in COVID-19 and the Impact of Pandemic Restrictions on Vitamin D Blood Content"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Agata","family":"Tomaszewska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Agnieszka","family":"Rustecka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Agnieszka","family":"Lipi\u0144ska-Opa\u0142ka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rafal P.","family":"Piprek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ma\u0142gorzata","family":"Kloc","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Boles\u0142aw","family":"Kalicki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jacek Z.","family":"Kubiak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1760","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13061760","article-title":"Calcifediol Treatment and Hospital Mortality Due to COVID-19: A Cohort Study","volume":"13","author":"Alcala-Diaz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3377","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12113377","article-title":"Vitamin D Supplementation Associated to Better Survival in Hospitalized Frail Elderly COVID-19 Patients: The GERIA-COVID Quasi-Experimental Study","volume":"12","author":"Annweiler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-015-1378-3","article-title":"Vitamin D Supplementation to Patients with Frequent Respiratory Tract Infections: a Post Hoc Analysis of a Randomized and Placebo-Controlled Trial","volume":"8","author":"Bergman","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMC Res. Notes"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.13219","article-title":"Extraskeletal Actions of Vitamin D","volume":"1376","author":"Bikle","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y Acad. Sci."},{"key":"B5","article-title":"GENDRES Network Vitamin D Role in Hospitalized Children with Lower Tract Acute Respiratory Infections","volume":"9","author":"Cebey-L\u00f3pez","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00014.2015","article-title":"Vitamin D: Metabolism, Molecular Mechanism of Action, and Pleiotropic Effects","volume":"96","author":"Christakos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"B7","unstructured":"A Cluster-Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study to Evaluate the Efficacy of Vitamin D3 Supplementation to Reduce Disease Severity in Persons with Newly Diagnosed COVID-19 Infection and to Prevent Infection in Household Members2021"},{"key":"B8","unstructured":"Phase 3 Randomised Controlled Trial of Vitamin D Supplementation to Reduce Risk and Severity of COVID-19 and Other Acute Respiratory Infections in the UK Population2021"},{"key":"B9","unstructured":"Efficacy of Treatment with Vitamin D in Patients Diagnosed with COVID-19 Who Presenting Vitamin D Deficiency and Pneumonia2021"},{"key":"B10","unstructured":"Vitamin D Supplementation and Covid-19: a Randomised, Double- Blind, Controlled Study2021"},{"key":"B11","unstructured":"Low vs. Moderate to High Dose Vitamin D for Prevention of COVID-192021"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1359","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12051359","article-title":"25-hydroxyvitamin D Concentrations Are Lower in Patients with Positive PCR for SARS-CoV-2","volume":"12","author":"D\u2019Avolio","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms18112482","article-title":"Vitamin D and Neurological Diseases: an Endocrine View","volume":"18","author":"Di Somma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bone.2021.116175","article-title":"A Randomized Pilot Study Using Calcitriol in Hospitalized COVID-19 Patients","volume":"154","author":"Elamir","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bone"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105751","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2020.105751","article-title":"\"Effect of Calcifediol Treatment and Best Available Therapy versus Best Available Therapy on Intensive Care Unit Admission and Mortality Among Patients Hospitalized for COVID-19: A Pilot Randomized Clinical Study\"","volume":"203","author":"Entrenas Castillo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3437","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-020-04801-y","article-title":"Neurological Manifestations of COVID-19: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Proportions","volume":"41","author":"Favas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-019-3958-7","article-title":"Increased Vitamin D Receptor Expression from Macrophages after Stimulation with M. tuberculosis Among Persons Who Have Recovered from Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis","volume":"19","author":"Fiske","year":"20192019","journal-title":"BMC Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e01498","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.1498","article-title":"Vitamin D Increases Remyelination by Promoting Oligodendrocyte Lineage Differentiation","volume":"10","author":"Gomez-Pinedo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Behav."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-3038.2011.01146.x","article-title":"Vitamin D(3) Deficiency Enhances Allergen-Induced Lymphocyte Responses in a Mouse Model of Allergic Airway Disease","volume":"23","author":"Gorman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatr. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2324","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12082324","article-title":"Dietary and Lifestyle Changes during COVID-19 and the Subsequent Lockdowns Among Polish Adults: A Cross-Sectional Online Survey PLifeCOVID-19 Study","volume":"12","author":"G\u00f3rnicka","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"988","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12040988","article-title":"Evidence that Vitamin D Supplementation Could Reduce Risk of Influenza and COVID-19 Infections and Deaths","volume":"12","author":"Grant","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-386960-9.00009-5","article-title":"Vitamin D Effects on Lung Immunity and Respiratory Diseases","volume":"86","author":"Hansdottir","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vitam Horm."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1343","DOI":"10.1210\/clinem\/dgaa733","article-title":"Vitamin D Status in Hospitalized Patients with SARS-CoV-2 Infection","volume":"106","author":"Hern\u00e1ndez","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114513001840","article-title":"A Systematic Review of Vitamin D Status in Populations Worldwide","volume":"111","author":"Hilger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.02.052","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry Depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and Is Blocked by a Clinically Proven Protease Inhibitor","volume":"181","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.4065\/81.3.353","article-title":"High Prevalence of Vitamin D Inadequacy and Implications for Health","volume":"81","author":"Holick","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1678S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/80.6.1678S","article-title":"Sunlight and Vitamin D for Bone Health and Prevention of Autoimmune Diseases, Cancers, and Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"80","author":"Holick","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1195","DOI":"10.1007\/s40520-020-01570-8","article-title":"The Role of Vitamin D in the Prevention of Coronavirus Disease 2019 Infection and Mortality","volume":"32","author":"Ilie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aging Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0239252","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0239252","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Positivity Rates Associated with Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D Levels","volume":"15","author":"Kaufman","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2015.01.007","article-title":"Isoflavones Enhance Interleukin-17 Gene Expression via Retinoic Acid Receptor-Related Orphan Receptors \u03b1 and \u03b3","volume":"329","author":"Kojima","year":"2015","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2013.0014810.3389\/fimmu.2013.00148","article-title":"The Vitamin D Receptor and T Cell Function","volume":"4","author":"Kongsbak","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B32","first-page":"241","article-title":"Witamina D a Uk\u0142ad Oddechowy","volume":"25","author":"Ku\u017ami\u0144ska","year":"2012","journal-title":"Post Nauk Med."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105924","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2020.105924","article-title":"Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19): the Epidemic and the Challenges","volume":"55","author":"Lai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10641","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-90189-4","article-title":"Impact of Daily High Dose Oral Vitamin D Therapy on the Inflammatory Markers in Patients with COVID 19 Disease","volume":"11","author":"Lakkireddy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13010177","article-title":"Vitamin D and Immunological Patterns of Allergic Diseases in Children","volume":"13","author":"Lipi\u0144ska-Opa\u0142ka","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eprac.2021.09.016","article-title":"Treatment with 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 (Calcifediol) Is Associated with a Reduction in the Blood Neutrophil-To-Lymphocyte Ratio Marker of Disease Severity in Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19: A Pilot Multicenter, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Double-Blinded Clinical Trial","volume":"27","author":"Maghbooli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Endocr. Pract."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.2174\/1874192401509010040","article-title":"Is Vitamin D Deficiency a New Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Disease?","volume":"9","author":"Mandarino","year":"2015","journal-title":"Open Cardiovasc. Med. J."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.06.21.162396","article-title":"Calcitriol, the Active Form of Vitamin D, Is a Promising Candidate for COVID-19 Prophylaxis","author":"Mok","year":"2020","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1933","DOI":"10.3390\/nu7031933","article-title":"Vitamin D Status and Acute Respiratory Infection: Cross Sectional Results from the United States National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2001-2006","volume":"7","author":"Monlezun","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1124\/pr.58.4.6","article-title":"International Union of Pharmacology. LXII. The NR1H and NR1I Receptors: Constitutive Androstane Receptor, Pregnene X Receptor, Farnesoid X Receptor Alpha, Farnesoid X Receptor Beta, Liver X Receptor Alpha, Liver X Receptor Beta, and Vitamin D Receptor","volume":"58","author":"Moore","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rev."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.26848","article-title":"Effect of a Single High Dose of Vitamin D3 on Hospital Length of Stay in Patients with Moderate to Severe COVID-19: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"325","author":"Murai","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2020.1841090","article-title":"Vitamin D Deficiency Aggravates COVID-19: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"4","author":"Pereira","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2775","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12092775","article-title":"Impact of Vitamin D Deficiency on COVID-19-A Prospective Analysis from the CovILD Registry","volume":"12","author":"Pizzini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.5114\/ait.2021.105783","article-title":"COVID-19: Coagulation Disorders and Anticoagulant Treatment in Patients Hospitalised in ICU","volume":"53","author":"Pluta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anaesthesiol Intensive Ther."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E246","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00174.2021","article-title":"Vitamin D and Lumisterol Novel Metabolites Can Inhibit SARS-CoV-2 Replication Machinery Enzymes","volume":"321","author":"Qayyum","year":"20212021","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"B47","first-page":"531","article-title":"Zasady Suplementacji I Leczenia Witamina\u0328 D\u2014Nowelizacja 2018 R","volume":"15","author":"Rusi\u0144ska","year":"2018","journal-title":"Stand. Med. Pediatr."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1990","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13061990","article-title":"The Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic during 2020-2021 on the Vitamin D Serum Levels in the Paediatric Population in Warsaw, Poland","volume":"13","author":"Rustecka","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2170","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13072170","article-title":"Effects of a 2-Week 5000 IU versus 1000 IU Vitamin D3 Supplementation on Recovery of Symptoms in Patients with Mild to Moderate Covid-19: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"13","author":"Sabico","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2016.09.024","article-title":"Endogenously Produced Nonclassical Vitamin D Hydroxy-Metabolites Act as \"biased\" Agonists on VDR and Inverse Agonists on ROR\u03b1 and ROR\u03b3","volume":"173","author":"Slominski","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2775","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.13-242040","article-title":"ROR\u03b1 and ROR \u03b3 Are Expressed in Human Skin and Serve as Receptors for Endogenously Produced Noncalcemic 20-hydroxy- and 20,23-dihydroxyvitamin D","volume":"28","author":"Slominski","year":"2014","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2020.1806758","article-title":"Vitamin D in Prevention and Treatment of COVID-19: Current Perspective and Future Prospects","volume":"1","author":"Vyas","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"B53","volume-title":"Sytuacja Zdrowotna Ludno\u015bci Polski I Jej Uwarunkowania 2020","author":"Wojtyniak","year":"2020"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7432","DOI":"10.3892\/mmr.2017.7546","article-title":"Vitamin D Alleviates Lipopolysaccharide-induced A-cute L-ung I-njury via R-egulation of the R-enin-angiotensin S-ystem","volume":"16","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-020-02488-5","article-title":"The Importance of Vitamin D Metabolism as a Potential Prophylactic, Immunoregulatory and Neuroprotective Treatment for COVID-19","volume":"18","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Transl Med."},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2669","DOI":"10.2147\/RMHP.S282495","article-title":"Effect of Pandemic-Related Confinement on Vitamin D Status Among Children Aged 0-6 Years in Guangzhou, China: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"13","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Risk Manag. Healthc. Pol."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1902","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25884","article-title":"Clinical Characteristics of 3062 COVID-19 Patients: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"92","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-0437-2_6","article-title":"The Role of Vitamin D for Cardiovascular Disease and Overall Mortality","volume":"810","author":"Zittermann","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Pharmacology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fphar.2022.836738\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,21]],"date-time":"2022-02-21T11:17:10Z","timestamp":1645442230000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fphar.2022.836738\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,21]]},"references-count":57,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fphar.2022.836738"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fphar.2022.836738","relation":{},"ISSN":["1663-9812"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1663-9812","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,21]]},"article-number":"836738"}}