{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T18:17:20Z","timestamp":1792088240748,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":198,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,8]],"date-time":"2025-04-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1744070400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Pharmacol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>The association and causal role of infectious agents in chronic inflammatory diseases have major implications for public health, treatment, and prevention. Pharmacological treatment of combined infectious and inflammatory diseases requires the administration of multiple drugs, including antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs. However, this can cause adverse effects, and therefore, dual-action drugs need to be developed. Anti-inflammatory drugs that have already shown antimicrobial properties appear to be promising candidates. NSAIDs, namely aceclofenac, diclofenac, and ibuprofen, were tested in clinical trials with patients diagnosed with uncomplicated urinary tract infections (UTIs) and cellulitis. The administration of ibuprofen, a drug tested in the highest number of studies, resulted in symptom resolution in patients with UTIs. Additionally, ibuprofen caused a high survival rate in mice infected with <jats:italic>Pseudomonas aeruginosa<\/jats:italic> and demonstrated potent <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic> antibacterial effects against <jats:italic>Bacillus cereus<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>Escherichia coli<\/jats:italic>, and <jats:italic>Staphylococcus aureus,<\/jats:italic> including methicillin-resistant <jats:italic>S. aureus<\/jats:italic> (MRSA) (MIC 0.625\u20132.5\u00a0mg\/L). For most anti-inflammatory drugs, only data showing their <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic> antimicrobial effects are available. Among these, auranofin caused a high survival rate in mice infected with <jats:italic>Enterococcus faecium, S. aureus,<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Clostridioides difficile.<\/jats:italic> It also produced a strong <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic> growth-inhibitory effect against <jats:italic>Streptococcus agalactiae, S. pneumoniae, S. aureus, S. epidermidis, Bacillus subtilis, C. difficile, E. faecalis, E. faecium,<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Mycobacterium tuberculosis<\/jats:italic> (MIC 0.0015\u20135\u00a0mg\/L). Similarly, aspirin caused a high survival rate in <jats:italic>M. tuberculosis-<\/jats:italic>infected mice and strong to moderate <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic> activity against <jats:italic>E. coli<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>B. cereus<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>aeruginosa<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>Enterobacter aerogenes<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>Klebsiella pneumoniae<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Salmonella choleraesuis<\/jats:italic> (MIC 1.2\u20135\u00a0mg\/L). Moreover, topical application of celecoxib resulted in a high reduction in MRSA burden in mice. However, it only caused moderate <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic> effects against <jats:italic>S. epidermidis<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>S. aureus<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Bacillus subitilis<\/jats:italic> (MIC 16\u201364\u00a0mg\/L). These data suggest that certain non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are promising drug candidates for the development of dual-action drugs for the potential treatment of combined infectious and inflammatory diseases such as tuberculosis, musculoskeletal infections and UTIs. Nevertheless, future clinical trials must be conducted to ascertain the antibacterial effect of these NSAIDs before their practical use.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2025.1557333","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,8]],"date-time":"2025-04-08T07:08:49Z","timestamp":1744096129000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Anti-inflammatory drugs as potential antimicrobial agents: a review"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Onyedika Emmanuel","family":"Okpala","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Johana","family":"Rondevaldova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ladislav","family":"Kokoska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2751","DOI":"10.1007\/s00203-020-01992-y","article-title":"Diclofenac mitigates virulence of multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"202","author":"Abbas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. 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