{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T03:06:15Z","timestamp":1790823975570,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":109,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759190400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Pharmacol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Monkeypox, now known as Mpox, has reemerged as a serious public health threat due to an increasing number of outbreaks outside its primary endemic regions. Although virologically similar to smallpox, smallpox therapy is not specifically approved for Mpox. The goal of this review is to assess the pharmacological progress and therapeutic efficacy of available and new therapies for Mpox. Structured literature review methodology was used based on peer-reviewed articles, clinical trials data and global health agency reports published from 2008 to 2025. Data was collected from ClinicalTrials.gov, Scopus and WHO databases with keywords on antiviral pharmacodynamics, resistance mechanism and clinical outcome. Prominent reviewed stewards include tecovirimat, brincidofovir, and cidofovir: drugs first developed for smallpox but repositioned for Mpox under expanded access programs. Tecovirimat seems most promising, however endangered by emerging resistance mutations. Innovative strategies, including mRNA vaccines, use of nanoparticles for drug delivery and host-directed treatments, are discussed that may improve treatment efficacy and preparedness for outbreaks. The results underscore that combination regimens will be required to counter resistance, there is a need for increased access in low- and middle-income countries, and global health cooperation should be bolstered. The review endorses increased clinical trial capacities, amended regulatory approaches development of new classes of therapeutics as part of global Mpox response efforts. By combining pharmacological breakthroughs with public health readiness, global health communities can be better equipped to respond to Mpox and other possible orthopox outbreaks of the future.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2025.1654467","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T05:38:02Z","timestamp":1759210682000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Evaluating the advancements and efficacies in pharmacological Mpox treatments: a comprehensive review"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Shuaibu Abdullahi","family":"Hudu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Najlaa","family":"Saadi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Albashir","family":"Tahir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdulgafar Olayiwola","family":"Jimoh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aliyu","family":"Haruna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1192542","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2023.1192542","article-title":"Assessing disparities in medical students\u2019 knowledge and attitude about monkeypox: a cross-sectional study of 27 countries across three continents","volume":"11","author":"Abd ElHafeez","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1072202","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.1072202","article-title":"Combination of the parent analogue of remdesivir (GS-441524) and molnupiravir results in a markedly potent antiviral effect in SARS-CoV-2 infected Syrian hamsters","volume":"13","author":"Abdelnabi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.31586\/ujpp.2024.996","article-title":"Unveiling vulnerabilities in the active pharmaceutical ingredient supply chain Amid disruptions","volume":"3","author":"Adak","year":"2024","journal-title":"Univers. J. Pharm. Pharmacol."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(22)00228-6","article-title":"Clinical features and management of human monkeypox: a retrospective observational study in the UK","volume":"22","author":"Adler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B5","article-title":"Smallpox drug in clinical trials for treating mpox in Africa","year":"2024"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1352","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12111352","article-title":"Mapping the landscape of health research priorities for effective pandemic preparedness in human mpox virus disease","volume":"12","author":"Aggarwal","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.130272.2","article-title":"Monkeypox (mpox) in immunosuppressed patients","volume":"12","author":"Ahmed","year":"2023","journal-title":"F1000Res"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23779608241256209","DOI":"10.1177\/23779608241256209","article-title":"Challenges and counteracting strategies including optimum health service practices for frontline nurses during the mpox outbreak and futuristic vision","volume":"10","author":"Ahmed","year":"2024","journal-title":"SAGE Open Nurs."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiad058","article-title":"Potential anti-mpox virus activity of atovaquone, mefloquine, and molnupiravir, and their potential use as treatments","volume":"228","author":"Akazawa","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1360586","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1360586","article-title":"A comprehensive review of monkeypox virus and mpox characteristics","volume":"14","author":"Alakunle","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2023.04.001","article-title":"Mpox: risks and approaches to prevention","volume":"16","author":"Amer","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Infect. Public Health"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"ciaf059","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaf059","article-title":"Mpox in people with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV): prioritizing interventions for those without HIV viral suppression","volume":"81","author":"Bender Ignacio","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101030","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2025.101030","article-title":"Mpox unveiled: global epidemiology, treatment advances, and prevention strategies","volume":"20","author":"Bogacka","year":"2025","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e28769","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.28769","article-title":"Presymptomatic viral shedding in high\u2010risk mpox contacts: a prospective cohort study","volume":"95","author":"Brosius","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1969","DOI":"10.3390\/life13101969","article-title":"Antivirals against monkeypox (Mpox) in humans: an updated narrative review","volume":"13","author":"Bruno","year":"2023","journal-title":"Life"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.3390\/zoonoticdis5010003","article-title":"A review of the molecular understanding of the mpox virus (MPXV): Genomics, immune evasion, and therapeutic targets","volume":"5","author":"Cambaza","year":"2025","journal-title":"Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"B17","unstructured":"Mpox. Tecovirimat (TPOXX) for treatment of mpox\n          \n          \n          2025"},{"key":"B18","unstructured":"Clinical treatment of Mpox\n          \n          \n          2025"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100397","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijregi.2024.100397","article-title":"The 2023 \u2013 2024 multi-source mpox outbreaks of Clade I MPXV in Sub-Saharan Africa: alarm bell for Africa and the world","volume":"12","author":"Cevik","year":"2024","journal-title":"IJID Reg."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"830990","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.830990","article-title":"Remdesivir and its combination with repurposed drugs as COVID-19 therapeutics","volume":"13","author":"Chatterjee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-023-05808-4","article-title":"A systematic review to identify novel clinical characteristics of monkeypox virus infection and therapeutic and preventive strategies to combat the virus","volume":"168","author":"Chenchula","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-024-01052-2","article-title":"Mpox mRNA-1769 vaccine inhibits orthopoxvirus replication at intranasal, intrarectal, and cutaneous sites of inoculation","volume":"9","author":"Cotter","year":"2024","journal-title":"NPJ Vaccines"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7220a3","article-title":"Estimated effectiveness of JYNNEOS vaccine in preventing Mpox: a multijurisdictional case-control study - United States, August 19, 2022-March 31, 2023","volume":"72","author":"Dalton","year":"2023","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1815","DOI":"10.3390\/v16121815","article-title":"Challenges in global distribution and equitable access to monkeypox vaccines","volume":"16","author":"Danladi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e01226-22","DOI":"10.1128\/aac.01226-22","article-title":"New perspectives on antimicrobial agents: tecovirimat for treatment of human Monkeypox virus","volume":"66","author":"DeLaurentis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1348","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2022.15336","article-title":"Compassionate use of tecovirimat for the treatment of monkeypox infection","volume":"328","author":"Desai","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.3390\/life13020325","article-title":"A synopsis of current theories on drug-induced nephrotoxicity","volume":"13","author":"Dobrek","year":"2023","journal-title":"Life (Basel)"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5935\/2238-3182.2024e34405-en","article-title":"Mpox in a patient with advanced HIV infection: severe destructive facial lesions with prolonged course and compassionate use of tecovirimat","volume":"34","author":"Duani","year":"2024","journal-title":"RMMG"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1002\/jcb.30397","article-title":"Drug repurposing for Mpox: discovery of small molecules as potential inhibitors against DNA\u2010dependent RNA polymerase using molecular modeling approach","volume":"124","author":"Dutt","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Cell Biochem."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.24321\/0019.5138.202310","article-title":"Molnupiravir and combination of nirmatrelvir and ritonavir (PaxlovidTM) - oral anti-viral drugs in COVID-19: a systematic review","volume":"55","author":"Elango","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Commun. Dis."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1080\/17460441.2023.2199980","article-title":"The discovery of novel antivirals for the treatment of mpox: is drug repurposing the answer?","volume":"18","author":"Ezat","year":"2023","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Discov."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2718","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26062718","article-title":"Antiviral effects of tecovirimat and cellular ultrastructural changes in human bronchial epithelial cell line following monkeypox virus infection","volume":"26","author":"Falasca","year":"2025","journal-title":"IJMS"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1007\/s00210-024-03385-0","article-title":"Mpox treatment evolution: past milestones, present advances, and future directions","volume":"398","author":"Ganesan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Schmiedeb. Arch. Pharmacol."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1456060","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1456060","article-title":"Advancements in monkeypox vaccines development: a critical review of emerging technologies","volume":"15","author":"Garcia-Atutxa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e00972-23","DOI":"10.1128\/aac.00972-23","article-title":"Community spread of a human monkeypox virus variant with a tecovirimat resistance-associated mutation","volume":"67","author":"Garrigues","year":"2023","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7340a3","article-title":"Notes from the field: mpox cluster caused by tecovirimat-resistant monkeypox virus \u2014 five states, October 2023\u2013February 2024","volume":"73","author":"Gigante","year":"2024","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3497","DOI":"10.1007\/s11030-023-10767-8","article-title":"Exploring Monkeypox: prospects for therapeutics through computational-aided drug discovery","volume":"28","author":"Grajales","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Divers"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7320a3","article-title":"Monkeypox virus infections after 2 preexposure doses of JYNNEOS vaccine \u2014 United States, May 2022\u2013May 2024","volume":"73","author":"Guagliardo","year":"2024","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2547","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-023-02547-6","article-title":"Impact of a TLR9 agonist and broadly neutralizing antibodies on HIV-1 persistence: the randomized phase 2a TITAN trial","volume":"29","author":"Gunst","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines11041106","article-title":"VP37 protein inhibitors for mpox treatment: highlights on recent advances, patent literature, and future directions","volume":"11","author":"Hudu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomedicines"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.17925\/id.2025.4.1.1","article-title":"Mpox: current clinical considerations on antiviral treatment","volume":"4","author":"Huston","year":"2025","journal-title":"touchREVIEWS Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1177\/10600280231151751","article-title":"Brincidofovir: a novel agent for the treatment of smallpox","volume":"57","author":"Huston","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Pharmacother."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29436","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-79897-9","article-title":"Exploration of drug repurposing for Mpox outbreaks targeting gene signatures and host-pathogen interactions","volume":"14","author":"Imani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines11020278","article-title":"Oral brincidofovir therapy for monkeypox outbreak: a focused review on the therapeutic potential, clinical studies, patent literature, and prospects","volume":"11","author":"Imran","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomedicines"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.53854\/liim-3102-6","article-title":"Antivirals for the treatment of Monkeypox: utilization in the general and HIV-positive population and gaps for research. A short narrative review","volume":"31","author":"Ivanov","year":"2023","journal-title":"Infez. Med."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06536","article-title":"Global trends in emerging infectious diseases","volume":"451","author":"Jones","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2023.02.003","article-title":"Monkeypox (mpox) virus: classification, origin, transmission, genome organization, antiviral drugs, and molecular diagnosis","volume":"16","author":"Karagoz","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Infect. Public Health"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106797","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106797","article-title":"Structure-based design of promising natural products to inhibit thymidylate kinase from Monkeypox virus and validation using free energy calculations","volume":"158","author":"Khan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comput. Biol. Med."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1119","DOI":"10.1007\/s40121-023-00782-5","article-title":"Safety and effectiveness of molnupiravir (LAGEVRIO\u00ae) capsules in Japanese patients with COVID-19: interim report of post-marketing surveillance in Japan","volume":"12","author":"Kimata","year":"2023","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Ther."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10020273","article-title":"Favipiravir in therapy of viral infections","volume":"10","author":"\u0141agocka","year":"2021","journal-title":"JCM"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2205","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciz286","article-title":"Preemptive tecovirimat use in an active duty service member who presented with acute myeloid leukemia after smallpox vaccination","volume":"69","author":"Lindholm","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/14740338.2025.2490271","article-title":"A real-world disproportionality analysis of cidofovir from the FDA adverse event reporting system (FAERS) database","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Saf."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01675-2","article-title":"Mpox (formerly monkeypox): pathogenesis, prevention and treatment","volume":"8","author":"Lu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sig Transduct. Target Ther."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26041481","article-title":"Potential broad-spectrum antiviral agents: a key arsenal against newly emerging and reemerging respiratory RNA viruses","volume":"26","author":"Luong","year":"2025","journal-title":"IJMS"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3159","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-020-02414-2","article-title":"Metal nanoparticles: a promising treatment for viral and arboviral infections","volume":"199","author":"Maduray","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines11030500","article-title":"Recent developments in mpox prevention and treatment options","volume":"11","author":"Malik","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vaccines (Basel)"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1188763","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2023.1188763","article-title":"Mechanistic inhibition of monkeypox and marburg virus infection by O-rhamnosides and Kaempferol-o-rhamnosides derivatives: a new-fangled computational approach","volume":"13","author":"Mashud","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"642","DOI":"10.7326\/M22-3132","article-title":"Tecovirimat treatment of people with HIV during the 2022 mpox outbreak: a retrospective cohort study","volume":"176","author":"McLean","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Intern Med."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7144e1","article-title":"Severe monkeypox in hospitalized patients \u2014 United States, August 10\u2013October 10, 2022","volume":"71","author":"Miller","year":"2022","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e77892","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.77892","article-title":"Epidemiology, pathogenesis, and treatment options of monkeypox: a narrative review","volume":"17","author":"Mishra","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(23)00273-8","article-title":"Mpox in people with advanced HIV infection: a global case series","volume":"401","author":"Mitj\u00e0","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"198975","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2022.198975","article-title":"Evolution of the orthopoxvirus core genome","volume":"323","author":"Molteni","year":"2023","journal-title":"Virus Researc"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6246","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00977-13","article-title":"Efficacy of tecovirimat (ST-246) in Nonhuman primates infected with Variola virus (Smallpox)","volume":"57","author":"Mucker","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5540","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2024.08.043","article-title":"Comparison of protection against mpox following mRNA or modified vaccinia Ankara vaccination in nonhuman primates","volume":"187","author":"Mucker","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e3002249","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3002249","article-title":"Early administration of tecovirimat shortens the time to mpox clearance in a model of human infection","volume":"21","author":"Nguyen","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLOS Biol."},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e17198","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.17198","article-title":"Towards the development of cost-effective point-of-care diagnostic tools for poverty-related infectious diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"12","author":"Ofori","year":"2024","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2023.09.004","article-title":"Clinical review of human mpox","volume":"29","author":"Ogoina","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e210","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa143","article-title":"Clinical course and outcome of human monkeypox in Nigeria","volume":"71","author":"Ogoina","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1186\/s43162-025-00401-4","article-title":"Tecovirimat in the management of poxviruses: a narrative review of available evidence","volume":"37","author":"Okesanya","year":"2025","journal-title":"Egypt J. Intern Med."},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2022.05.26.22273379","article-title":"Clinical characterization of human monkeypox infections in the Democratic Republic of the Congo","author":"Pittman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Except. HIV\/AIDS"},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105995","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2024.105995","article-title":"Treatment efficacy of cidofovir and brincidofovir against clade II Monkeypox virus isolates","volume":"231","author":"Pr\u00e9vost","year":"2024","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(25)00082-9","article-title":"Mpox vaccination: a dose of protection, but is it enough?","volume":"25","author":"Raccagni","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.22-0596","article-title":"Public health challenges in the context of the global spread of mpox infections","volume":"108","author":"Rahi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.5334\/aogh.4580","article-title":"Challenges and ongoing actions to address the mpox emergency in Africa","volume":"90","author":"Rahim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Glob. Health"},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.53854\/liim-3201-2","article-title":"Monkeypox virus infections in low-risk groups during the 2022-23 global outbreak: an analysis of the WHO global report","volume":"32","author":"Ram\u00edrez-Soto","year":"2024","journal-title":"Infez. Med."},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2055","DOI":"10.1007\/s00210-023-02769-y","article-title":"Potential use of cidofovir, brincidofovir, and tecovirimat drugs in fighting monkeypox infection: recent trends and advancements","volume":"397","author":"Rani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Naunyn-Schmiedeberg\u2019s Archives Pharmacol."},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7209a4","article-title":"Interim clinical treatment considerations for severe manifestations of mpox \u2014 United States, February 2023","volume":"72","author":"Rao","year":"2023","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e37107","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.37107","article-title":"Global Monkeypox virus outbreak 2022: a bibliometric analysis","volume":"15","author":"Rehan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.3390\/v9120380","article-title":"Improving the care and treatment of monkeypox patients in low-resource settings: applying evidence from contemporary biomedical and smallpox biodefense research","volume":"9","author":"Reynolds","year":"2017","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16262","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1005769107","article-title":"Major increase in human monkeypox incidence 30 years after smallpox vaccination campaigns cease in the Democratic Republic of Congo","volume":"107","author":"Rimoin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S133","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofae374","article-title":"Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome related to antiretroviral therapy initiation in people with HIV and mpox: an observational retrospective study","volume":"11","author":"Rodr\u00edguez-Aldama","year":"2024","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1040","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2024.16432","article-title":"The latest research about Paxlovid: effectiveness, access, and possible long COVID benefits","volume":"332","author":"Rubin","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1490","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiy326","article-title":"Effects of treatment delay on efficacy of tecovirimat following lethal aerosol monkeypox virus challenge in cynomolgus macaques","volume":"218","author":"Russo","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1080\/14787210.2023.2170350","article-title":"Overview of the regulatory approval of tecovirimat intravenous formulation for treatment of smallpox: potential impact on smallpox outbreak response capabilities, and future tecovirimat development potential","volume":"21","author":"Russo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther."},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106971","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2023.106971","article-title":"Identification of core therapeutic targets for Monkeypox virus and repurposing potential of drugs against them: an in silico approach","volume":"161","author":"Sahu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comput. Biol. Med."},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1007\/s11904-023-00661-1","article-title":"Mpox and HIV: a narrative review","volume":"20","author":"Saldana","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. HIV\/AIDS Rep."},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.2174\/0113894501281263231218070841","article-title":"Breaking barriers: current advances and future directions in MpoxTherapy","volume":"25","author":"Shah","year":"2024","journal-title":"CDT"},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1149909","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2023.1149909","article-title":"Pharmacological treatment and vaccines in monkeypox virus: a narrative review and bibliometric analysis","volume":"14","author":"Shamim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107512","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2020.107512","article-title":"Favipiravir, an anti-influenza drug against life-threatening RNA virus infections","volume":"209","author":"Shiraki","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacol. and Ther."},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1109","DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-020-01350-8","article-title":"Baloxavir marboxil: a review in acute uncomplicated influenza","volume":"80","author":"Shirley","year":"2020","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac622","article-title":"Antivirals with activity against mpox: a clinically oriented review","volume":"76","author":"Siegrist","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1407","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.122.9.1407-a","article-title":"The ocular complications of smallpox and smallpox immunization","volume":"122","author":"Smith","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2426","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2912.231146","article-title":"Tecovirimat resistance in mpox patients, United States, 2022\u20132023","volume":"29","author":"Smith","year":"2023","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2496","DOI":"10.3390\/v14112496","article-title":"Prevention and treatment of monkeypox: a systematic review of preclinical studies","volume":"14","author":"Sudarmaji","year":"2022","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines11030658","article-title":"Recent advances in the lipid nanoparticle-mediated delivery of mRNA vaccines","volume":"11","author":"Swetha","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vaccines"},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2207323","article-title":"Monkeypox virus infection in humans across 16 countries \u2014 April\u2013June 2022","volume":"387","author":"Thornhill","year":"2022","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.4236\/jbm.2025.132021","article-title":"Favipiravir-RTP as a potential therapeutic agent for inhibiting Dengue virus replication","volume":"13","author":"Tsai","year":"2025","journal-title":"JBM"},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1093\/jpids\/pit048","article-title":"Ganciclovir, foscarnet, and cidofovir: antiviral drugs not just for Cytomegalovirus","volume":"2","author":"Upadhyayula","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. Soc."},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-025-01936-6","article-title":"Structural insights into tecovirimat antiviral activity and poxvirus resistance","volume":"10","author":"Vernuccio","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1555","DOI":"10.1086\/587668","article-title":"Severe eczema vaccinatum in a household contact of a smallpox vaccinee","volume":"46","author":"Vora","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.3390\/v17010092","article-title":"Repurposing drugs for synergistic combination therapies to counteract monkeypox virus tecovirimat resistance","volume":"17","author":"Witwit","year":"2025","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1177\/0091270002239705","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics and renal effects of cidofovir with a reduced dose of probenecid in HIV\u2010Infected patients with Cytomegalovirus retinitis","volume":"43","author":"Wolf","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Pharma"},{"key":"B103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1547021","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1547021","article-title":"Preparation and application evaluation of monoclonal antibodies against Monkeypox virus A29 protein","volume":"16","author":"Xiangjun","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"B104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1661","DOI":"10.1007\/s40121-022-00666-0","article-title":"Effectiveness and safety of sofosbuvir\/velpatasvir\/voxilaprevir as a hepatitis C virus infection salvage therapy in the real world: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"11","author":"Xie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Ther."},{"key":"B105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-16-0267-2_12","article-title":"Safe-in-Man broad spectrum antiviral agents","volume-title":"Antiviral drug discovery and development (advances in experimental medicine and biology; vol. 1322)","author":"Yao","year":"2021"},{"key":"B106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e013126","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2023-013126","article-title":"Mpox (monkeypox) risk and mortality associated with HIV infection: a national case\u2013control study in Nigeria","volume":"8","author":"Yinka-Ogunleye","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMJ Glob. Health"},{"key":"B107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"EVIDoa2400189","DOI":"10.1056\/EVIDoa2400189","article-title":"Tecovirimat use under expanded access to treat mpox in the United States, 2022\u20132023","volume":"3","author":"Yu","year":"2024","journal-title":"NEJM Evid."},{"key":"B108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.3967\/bes2024.121","article-title":"Advancements in mpox vaccine development: a comprehensive review of global progress and recent data","volume":"38","author":"Zhai","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biomed. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"B109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.24-0606","article-title":"The 2024 public health emergency of international concern: a global failure to control mpox","volume":"112","author":"Zumla","year":"2025","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Pharmacology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fphar.2025.1654467\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T05:38:05Z","timestamp":1759210685000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fphar.2025.1654467\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]},"references-count":109,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fphar.2025.1654467"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fphar.2025.1654467","relation":{},"ISSN":["1663-9812"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1663-9812","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]},"article-number":"1654467"}}