{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,12]],"date-time":"2025-11-12T06:36:08Z","timestamp":1762929368411,"version":"3.45.0"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,12]],"date-time":"2025-11-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762905600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006087","name":"Direcci\u00f3n General de Asuntos Del Personal Acad\u00e9mico, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006087","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Pharmacol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Traditional Persian Medicine (TPM) has long contributed to the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diabetes. Rooted in the theory of temperament, TPM classifies individuals and diseases according to four qualities: warm-dry, warm-wet, cold-wet, and cold-dry. In classical TPM literature, diabetes is referred to by various names\u2014most notably \u201cdhiabitos\u201d and \u201cdul\u0101b\u201d\u2014and is consistently associated with dysfunction of the kidneys and liver. For this study, seminal TPM texts were systematically reviewed using targeted keywords to extract definitions, etiologies, symptoms, diagnostic criteria, and therapeutic strategies related to diabetes. These findings were supplemented with data from electronic databases, including ScienceDirect, PubMed, and Scopus. TPM classifies diabetes into two categories: hot and cold. Historical manuscripts detail a wide array of therapeutic preparations, predominantly herbal and herbo-mineral formulations, along with several mineral substances believed to balance temperament. Among these, oral dosage forms, particularly Safoofs (dry powders), were the most frequently prescribed across both categories. In total, 208 plant species from 81 botanical families, along with several mineral substances, were identified in traditional formulations. According to TPM, the medicinal plants, similarly to diseases, commonly exhibit either hot or cold properties, reflecting the principle that treatments should rebalance underlying dystemperament rather than merely relieve symptoms. This paradigm emphasizes addressing the root causes of disease. TPM physicians (hakims) often attribute diabetes to factors such as kidney dysfunction and dysregulated water metabolism. In contrast, modern biomedical literature does not distinguish between \u201chot\u201d and \u201ccold\u201d diabetes; these classifications may reflect two stages in the spectrum of diabetes pathology. Hot diabetes may align with the early stages of Type 2 diabetes, while cold diabetes corresponds to the advanced stages of Type 2 diabetes or possibly Type 1 diabetes. Future research should examine the phytochemical and pharmacological profiles of plants used in the treatment of \u201chot\u201d and \u201ccold\u201d diabetes, with a particular emphasis on their hypoglycemic properties. Plants used for \u201chot\u201d diabetes may possess anti-inflammatory effects that protect pancreatic beta cells and improve insulin function. Additionally, it is important to explore the potential effectiveness of plants associated with \u201ccold\u201d diabetes in managing diabetes-related complications, such as nephropathy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2025.1673440","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,12]],"date-time":"2025-11-12T06:31:46Z","timestamp":1762929106000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Diabetes and traditional remedies in Medieval Persia: a historical perspective"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Fereshteh","family":"Safavi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Adolfo","family":"Andrade-Cetto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sonia M.","family":"Escand\u00f3n-Rivera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","unstructured":"American diabetes asociation\n          \n          \n          2025"},{"key":"B2","volume-title":"Kholase Al Hekmah (Persian)","author":"Aghili Alavi Khorasani Shirazi","year":"2006"},{"key":"B3","volume-title":"Qarabadin-e-Kabir","author":"Aghili Alavi Khorasani Shirazi","year":"2007"},{"key":"B4","volume-title":"Makhzan-Al\u2019 Advieh","author":"Aghili Alavi Khorasani Shirazi","year":"2008"},{"key":"B5","volume-title":"Kamil al-Sana\u2019ah al-Tibbiyya., first edition, ed. Translation by Seyyed Mohammad Khaled Ghafari","author":"Ahwazi","year":"2009"},{"key":"B6","volume-title":"Mofareh Al-Gholub","author":"Arzani","year":"1915"},{"key":"B7","volume-title":"Tebe-Akbari","author":"Arzani","year":"2009"},{"key":"B8","volume-title":"Al-Qanun fi al-tibb (The Canon of Medicine)., First edition, ed. Translated by Abdul Rahman Sharafkandi","year":"2005"},{"key":"B9","volume-title":"al-Mukhtarat fi al-Tibb. Matba\u2019at Majlis","author":"Baghdadi","year":"1983"},{"key":"B10","first-page":"67","article-title":"A critical comparison between dosage forms in traditional Persian pharmacy and those reported in current pharmaceutical sciences","volume":"4","author":"Baranifard","year":"2017","journal-title":"Res. J. Pharmacogn."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1939","DOI":"10.1039\/D0RA09992A","article-title":"Minerals in biology and medicine","volume":"11","author":"Carter","year":"2021","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"B12","volume-title":"Qarabadin-e-Aazam","author":"Chashti","year":"2004"},{"key":"B13","volume-title":"Exir-e-Azam","author":"Chashti","year":"2008"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2014.11.021","article-title":"Ethnopharmacological field study of the plants used to treat type 2 diabetes among the Cakchiquels in Guatemala","volume":"159","author":"Cruz","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.5897\/JDE12.004","article-title":"Presenting anti-diabetic plants in Iranian traditional medicine","volume":"3","author":"Dabaghian","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1080\/0015587X.2012.682477","article-title":"A survey of birds and fabulous stones","volume":"123","author":"Duffin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Folk. (United Kingdom)"},{"key":"B17","first-page":"13","article-title":"Porcupine stones","volume":"43","author":"Duffin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pharm. Hist."},{"key":"B18","first-page":"41","article-title":"Historical survey of the internal use of unprocessed amber","volume":"13","author":"Duffin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Med. Hist. Adriat."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S59","DOI":"10.2337\/DC25-S004","article-title":"4. Comprehensive medical evaluation and assessment of comorbidities: standards of care in diabetes-2025","volume":"48","author":"ElSayed","year":"2025","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"B20","volume-title":"Weights and measures in traditional Iranian medicine, translation of the Arabic book of the encyclopedia of Arab and Islamic measurement units","author":"Fakhouri","year":"2018"},{"key":"B21","volume-title":"Matching the old medicinal plant names with scientific terminology","author":"Ghahreman","year":"2009"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-65706-2_3","article-title":"Historical evolution of the use of minerals in human health","volume":"1","author":"Gomes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Minerals Latu Sensu Hum. Health Benefits, Toxic. Pathol."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1016\/S0149-7634(01)00025-2","article-title":"History of epilepsy in Medieval Iranian medicine","volume":"25","author":"Gorji","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav Rev."},{"key":"B24","volume-title":"A practical guide to integrated type 2 diabetes care","author":"Harkins","year":"2016"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1669","DOI":"10.1007\/s11094-025-03336-w","article-title":"Physicochemical, pharmaceutical and toxicological evaluation of Armenian bole, an Ancient medicinal clay","volume":"58","author":"Hosseinkhani","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pharm. Chem. J."},{"key":"B26","article-title":"International diabetes Federation","year":"2025"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100483","DOI":"10.1016\/J.IMR.2020.100483","article-title":"Persian medicine recommendations for the prevention of pandemics related to the respiratory system: a narrative literature review","volume":"10","author":"Iranzadasl","year":"2021","journal-title":"Integr. Med. Res."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100591","DOI":"10.1016\/J.HERMED.2022.100591","article-title":"Prevalence, pattern and perceived benefits of unani medicines usage in diabetes: a patient-based survey at a Primary Health Centre of Bengaluru, India","volume":"35","author":"Itrat","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Herb. Med."},{"key":"B29","volume-title":"Al-Aghraz Al-Tabiyeh","author":"Jorjani","year":"2010"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.4103\/AYU.AYU_62_20","article-title":"An overview of primary registries of WHO\u2019s international clinical trial registry platform","volume":"40","author":"Juneja","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ayu"},{"key":"B31","volume-title":"Morakkabat (Unani Formulations)","author":"Kabir","year":"2003"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1163\/ej.9789004156203.i-349","volume-title":"The dispensatory of Ibn At-Tilm\u012b\u1e0f","author":"Kahl","year":"2007"},{"key":"B33","volume-title":"Makhazen al Taalim","author":"Khan","year":"2015"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.19080\/JCMAH.2018.07.555705","article-title":"Potential benefits of ambergris beyond perfume","volume":"7","author":"Kumar Singh","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Complement. Med. Alt. Healthc. J."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e23664","DOI":"10.5812\/IRCMJ.23664","article-title":"Prevention and treatment of flatulence from a traditional Persian medicine perspective","volume":"18","author":"Larijani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Iran. Red. Crescent Med. J."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4770","DOI":"10.4251\/wjgo.v16.i12.4770","article-title":"Use of traditional Chinese medicine bezoars and bezoar-containing preparations in hepatocarcinoma","volume":"16","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"World J. Gastrointest. Oncol."},{"key":"B37","volume-title":"Healing with poisons. Potent medicines in medieval China","author":"Liu","year":"2021"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/J.JEP.2018.04.047","article-title":"Hajrul yahood (Lapis judaicus): an important mineral drug of Unani system of medicine for the management of urolithiasis","volume":"222","author":"Makbul","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1159\/000526441","article-title":"From antiquity to modern times: a history of diabetes mellitus and its treatments","volume":"95","author":"March","year":"2022","journal-title":"Horm. Res. Paediatr."},{"key":"B40","volume-title":"Review of principles of Iranian traditional medicine","author":"Naseri","year":"2009"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1163\/ej.9789004171190.i-796","volume-title":"Medieval pharmacotherapy\u2014continuity and change; case studies from Ibn s\u012bn\u0101 and some of his late medieval commentators","author":"Paavilainen","year":"2009"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-65038-8_90-1","article-title":"Pygmy Sperm Whale Kogia breviceps (de Blainville, 1838)","author":"Pl\u00f6n","year":"2022"},{"key":"B43","volume-title":"Al-Hawi., ed. Translated by: Suleiman Afsharipour","author":"Razi","year":"2005"},{"key":"B44","first-page":"169","article-title":"The traditional Iranian medicine point of view on health and disease","volume":"38","author":"Rezaeizadeh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Iran. J. Public Health"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1079\/9781800621671.0003","article-title":"Relationships between traditional Persian\/Iranian medicine and other traditional medical systems","author":"Schulz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Med. Plants Used Traditional Persian Med."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmr.2004.03.006","article-title":"Traditional systems of medicine","volume":"15","author":"Shankar","year":"2004","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Rehabil. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"B47","volume-title":"Tohfato Al\u2019-Momenin","author":"Tonekaboni","year":"2007"},{"key":"B48","volume-title":"Part I. New dehli: department of Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, unani, siddha and homoeopathy (AYUSH)","year":"2008"},{"key":"B49","article-title":"WHO guidelines for assessing quality of herbal medicines with reference to contaminants and residues","year":"2007"},{"key":"B50","unstructured":"WHO traditional medicine strategy: 2014\u20132023\n          \n          \n          2023"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/J.IJCARD.2014.01.035","article-title":"Ancient Persian medical views on the heart and blood in the Sassanid era (224-637 AD)","volume":"172","author":"Zargaran","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Pharmacology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fphar.2025.1673440\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,12]],"date-time":"2025-11-12T06:31:51Z","timestamp":1762929111000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fphar.2025.1673440\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,12]]},"references-count":51,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fphar.2025.1673440"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fphar.2025.1673440","relation":{},"ISSN":["1663-9812"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1663-9812","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,12]]},"article-number":"1673440"}}