{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T16:13:29Z","timestamp":1790784809091,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,22]],"date-time":"2021-07-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1626912000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Physiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p><jats:bold>Introduction:<\/jats:bold> Acute apnea evokes bradycardia and peripheral vasoconstriction in order to conserve oxygen, which is more pronounced with face immersion. This response is contrary to the tachycardia and increased blood flow to muscle tissue related to the higher oxygen consumption during exercise. The aim of this study was to investigate cardiovascular and metabolic responses of dynamic dry apnea (DRA) and face immersed apnea (FIA).<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Methods:<\/jats:bold> Ten female volunteers (17.1 \u00b1 0.6 years old) naive to breath-hold-related sports, performed a series of seven dynamic 30 s breath-holds while cycling at 25% of their peak power output. This was performed in two separate conditions in a randomized order: FIA (15\u00b0C) and DRA. Heart rate and muscle tissue oxygenation through near-infrared spectroscopy were continuously measured to determine oxygenated (m[O<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>Hb]) and deoxygenated hemoglobin concentration (m[HHb]) and tissue oxygenation index (mTOI). Capillary blood lactate was measured 1 min after the first, third, fifth, and seventh breath-hold.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Results:<\/jats:bold> Average duration of the seven breath-holds did not differ between conditions (25.3 s \u00b1 1.4 s, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.231). The apnea-induced bradycardia was stronger with FIA (from 134 \u00b1 4 to 85 \u00b1 3 bpm) than DRA (from 134 \u00b1 4 to 100 \u00b1 5 bpm, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001). mTOI decreased significantly from 69.9 \u00b1 0.9% to 63.0 \u00b1 1.3% (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001) which is reflected in a steady decrease in m[O<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>Hb] (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001) and concomitant increase in m[HHb] (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.001). However, this was similar in both conditions (0.121 &amp;lt; <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.542). Lactate was lower after the first apnea with FIA compared to DRA (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.038), while no differences were observed in the other breath-holds.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Conclusion:<\/jats:bold> Our data show strong decreases in heart rate and muscle tissue oxygenation during dynamic apneas. A stronger bradycardia was observed in FIA, while muscle oxygenation was not different, suggesting that FIA did not influence muscle oxygenation. An order of mechanisms was observed in which, after an initial tachycardia, heart rate starts to decrease after muscle tissue deoxygenation occurs, suggesting a role of peripheral vasoconstriction in the apnea-induced bradycardia. The apnea-induced increase in lactate was lower in FIA during the first apnea, probably caused by the stronger bradycardia.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2021.712629","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,22]],"date-time":"2021-07-22T13:57:08Z","timestamp":1626962228000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Heart Rate and Muscle Oxygenation Kinetics During Dynamic Constant Load Intermittent Breath-Holds"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Janne","family":"Bouten","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sander","family":"De Bock","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gil","family":"Bourgois","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarah","family":"de Jager","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jasmien","family":"Dumortier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jan","family":"Boone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jan G.","family":"Bourgois","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0838.2008.00777.x","article-title":"Arterial oxygen saturation and diving response during dynamic apneas in breath-hold divers","volume":"19","author":"Andersson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.01057.2002","article-title":"Cardiovascular and respiratory responses to apneas with and without face immersion in exercising humans","volume":"96","author":"Andersson","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"882","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00863.2001","article-title":"Diving response and arterial oxygen saturation during apnea and exercise in breath-hold divers","volume":"93","author":"Andersson","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s004210050294","article-title":"Effects of lung volume and involuntary breathing movements on the human diving response","volume":"77","author":"Andersson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol."},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-201X.1968.tb10892.x","article-title":"The \u201cdiving bradycardia\u201d in exercising man","volume":"73","author":"Asmussen","year":"1968","journal-title":"Acta Physiol. Scand."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2914","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00381.2017","article-title":"Ventilation inhibits sympathetic action potential recruitment even during severe chemoreflex stress","volume":"118","author":"Badrov","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1113\/EP086269","article-title":"Physiology of static breath holding in elite apneists","volume":"103","author":"Bain","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1972.33.1.27","article-title":"\u201cDiving reflex\u201d in man: its relation to isometric and dynamic exercise","volume":"33","author":"Bergman","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2213","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-020-04445-y","article-title":"Hold your breath: peripheral and cerebral oxygenation during dry static apnea","volume":"120","author":"Bouten","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-5687(87)90091-0","article-title":"Heart rate in humans during underwater swimming with and without breath-hold","volume":"69","author":"Butler","year":"1987","journal-title":"Respir. Physiol."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2016.1183809","article-title":"The oxygen-conserving potential of the diving response: a kinetic-based analysis","volume":"35","author":"Costalat","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2523","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-013-2690-z","article-title":"Hemodynamic adjustments during breath-holding in trained divers","volume":"113","author":"Costalat","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1097\/00003677-200104000-00009","article-title":"Cardiovascular drift during prolonged exercise: new perspectives","volume":"29","author":"Coyle","year":"2001","journal-title":"Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1007\/s10877-015-9662-2","article-title":"Evaluation of near-infrared spectroscopy under apnea-dependent hypoxia in humans","volume":"29","author":"Eichhorn","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Monit. Comput."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0042-107351","article-title":"Influence of apnea-induced hypoxia on catecholamine release and cardiovascular dynamics","volume":"38","author":"Eichhorn","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1113\/EP088404","article-title":"Splenic responses to a series of repeated maximal static and dynamic apnoeas with whole-body immersion in water","volume":"106","author":"Elia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0838.2011.01391.x","article-title":"Effects of two weeks of daily apnea training on diving response, spleen contraction, and erythropoiesis in novel subjects","volume":"23","author":"Engan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-1716.1991.tb09148.x","article-title":"Low ambient temperature increases baroreflex-governed sympathetic outflow to muscle vessels in humans","volume":"142","author":"Fagius","year":"1991","journal-title":"Acta Physiol. Scand."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1986.sp016196","article-title":"Activity in muscle and skin nerve fascicles","volume":"377","author":"Fagius","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0838.2005.00440.x","article-title":"The human diving response, its function, and its control","volume":"15","author":"Foster","year":"2005","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports"},{"key":"ref21","first-page":"43","article-title":"Inter-observer variability in the measurement of body composition","volume":"45","author":"Fuller","year":"1991","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02691277","article-title":"Mechanism of the human diving response","volume":"29","author":"Gooden","year":"1994","journal-title":"Integr. Physiol. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resp.2004.05.004","article-title":"Effect of facial cooling and cold air inhalation on sympathetic nerve activity in men","volume":"142","author":"Heindl","year":"2004","journal-title":"Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1968.25.5.542","article-title":"Vasoconstrictor response to simulated diving in man","volume":"25","author":"Heistad","year":"1968","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.108.127530","article-title":"Cardiovascular regulation during apnea in elite divers","volume":"53","author":"Heusser","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/0031-9384(86)90018-1","article-title":"The human dive reflex: an experimental, topographical and physiological analysis","volume":"36","author":"Hurwitz","year":"1986","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"H434","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00367.2017","article-title":"Voluntary apnea during dynamic exercise activates the muscle metaboreflex in humans","volume":"314","author":"Ichinose","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-1716.2009.01982.x","article-title":"Circulatory effects of apnoea in elite breath-hold divers","volume":"197","author":"Joulia","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acta Physiol."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1967.23.6.964","article-title":"Cardiovascular effects of face immersion and factors affecting diving reflex in man","volume":"23","author":"Kawakami","year":"1967","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref30","first-page":"327","article-title":"Intermittent breath holding during moderate bicycle exercise provokes consistent changes in muscle oxygenation and greater blood lactate response","volume":"53","author":"Kume","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Sport. Med. Phys. Heal."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-800421-0.00015-1","article-title":"The Trigeminocardiac reflex: a comparison with the diving reflex in humans","volume":"11","author":"Lemaitre","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trigeminocardiac Reflex."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1516","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.2001.90.4.1516","article-title":"Hypoxia augments apnea-induced peripheral vasoconstriction in humans","volume":"90","author":"Leuenberger","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"H864","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00413.2011","article-title":"Relationships between the extent of apnea-induced bradycardia and the vascular response in the arm and leg during dynamic two-legged knee extension exercise","volume":"302","author":"Nishiyasu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resp.2007.02.002","article-title":"Cerebral and peripheral hemodynamics and oxygenation during maximal dry breath-holds","volume":"157","author":"Palada","year":"2007","journal-title":"Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref8001","first-page":"794","article-title":"Total body fat and skinfold thickness in children","volume":"10","author":"Parizkova","year":"1961","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1367","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-016-3390-2","article-title":"Prolonged dry apnoea: effects on brain activity and physiological functions in breath-hold divers and non-divers","volume":"116","author":"Ratmanova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref36","first-page":"143","article-title":"Effects of repeated apneas on apneic time and diving response in non-divers","volume":"26","author":"Schagatay","year":"1999","journal-title":"Undersea Hyperb. Med."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1159\/000495757","article-title":"Effects of breath-hold deep diving on the pulmonary system","volume":"97","author":"Schipke","year":"2019","journal-title":"Respiration"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1962.17.2.184","article-title":"Circulatory adjustment in pearl divers","volume":"17","author":"Scholander","year":"1962","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-1716.1988.tb08306.x","article-title":"The role of different facial areas in eliciting human diving bradycardia","volume":"132","author":"Schuitema","year":"1988","journal-title":"Acta Physiol. Scand."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-014-2992-9","article-title":"A beat-by-beat analysis of cardiovascular responses to dry resting and exercise apnoeas in elite divers","volume":"115","author":"Sivieri","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.1971.tb00500.x","article-title":"Effects of depth and rate of breathing on heart rate and heart rate variability","volume":"8","author":"Sroufe","year":"1971","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Physiology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fphys.2021.712629\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,22]],"date-time":"2021-07-22T13:57:19Z","timestamp":1626962239000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fphys.2021.712629\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,22]]},"references-count":42,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fphys.2021.712629"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fphys.2021.712629","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-042X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-042X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,22]]},"article-number":"712629"}}