{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,15]],"date-time":"2025-08-15T00:17:50Z","timestamp":1755217070583,"version":"3.43.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,5]],"date-time":"2025-08-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754352000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Physiol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>Trigeminal neuralgia (TN) is a chronic neuropathic pain disorder characterized by spontaneous or triggered electric shock-like facial pain. Microvascular decompression (MVD) is the most effective surgical intervention for classical TN that is refractory to medication. Recent advances in neuroimaging have enhanced visualization of the trigeminal nerve\u2019s vascular anatomy, deepening insights into TN pathophysiology and paving the way for improved diagnostics and therapies. Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) has been extensively applied in studies of TN, uncovering alterations in brain activity, functional connectivity, cortical thickness and neural networks.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Independent component analysis (ICA) presents a powerful alternative for analyzing fMRI data, offering several advantages over traditional region of interests (ROIs) approaches. The sensorimotor network playing a key role in pain modulation, identifying neuroimaging differences in the sensorimotor network is crucial for detecting and intervening in TN, Forty TN patients underwent MVD surgery, with follow-up assessments conducted 6 months postoperatively and twenty-five healthy controls (HC) were recruited and scanned with resting state fMRI (rs-fMRI). Group ICA was used to identify ROIs and assessed inter-group differences in neural activity using false discovery rate (FDR) correction.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Compared to the HC, increased activity was observed in the right frontal operculum cortex, right insular cortex, right inferior frontal gyrus (pars opercularis), and right frontal pole in TN patients. Conversely, decreased activity was found in the right cerebellum (lobule IX) and left cerebellum (lobules VIII and IX). Compared to the pre-surgery, increased activity was found in the right precentral gyrus in the post-surgery group. Compared to the HC, long-term increased activity was still present in the right frontal operculum cortex, right insular cortex, right inferior frontal gyrus (pars opercularis), and right frontal pole despite the effectiveness of MVD surgery. In contrast, MVD significantly reduced the area of aberrant activation regions, particularly in the operculo-insular cortex, and also normalized cerebellar abnormalities.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Our study demonstrates that ICA can effectively identify distinct patterns of functional connectivity in the sensorimotor network associated with TN and MVD surgery. These regions are involved in altered pain processing, including nociceptive stimulus integration, subjective pain perception, pain chronification, and pain-related empathy. Our findings suggest promising biomarkers for TN and provide insights for developing targeted treatments.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2025.1633028","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,5]],"date-time":"2025-08-05T05:25:09Z","timestamp":1754371509000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The alteration of the sensorimotor network in trigeminal neuralgia after microvascular decompression surgery: a follow-up study using independent component analysis"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Yan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xueju","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xuefeng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gengdi","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2768-15.2016","article-title":"Chronic neuropathic pain: it's about the rhythm","volume":"36","author":"Alshelh","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13981","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1984-11.2011","article-title":"The cortical rhythms of chronic back pain","volume":"31","author":"Baliki","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"article-title":"Neuroanatomy, precentral gyrus","year":"2019","author":"Banker","key":"B3"},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2863","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00253.2010","article-title":"Multiple somatotopic representations of heat and mechanical pain in the operculo-insular cortex: a high-resolution fMRI study","volume":"104","author":"Baumg\u00e4rtner","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2007.04.042","article-title":"A component based noise correction method (CompCor) for BOLD and perfusion based fMRI","volume":"37","author":"Behzadi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.13950","article-title":"European academy of neurology guideline on trigeminal neuralgia","volume":"26","author":"Bendtsen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. neurology"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4734","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0911855107","article-title":"Toward discovery science of human brain function","volume":"107","author":"Biswal","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"B7","first-page":"1","article-title":"The insula: a multidimensional integration site for pain","volume-title":"Pain","author":"Brooks","year":"2007"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.1048","article-title":"A method for making group inferences from functional MRI data using independent component analysis","volume":"14","author":"Calhoun","year":"2001","journal-title":"Hum. brain Mapp."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2075","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.22757","article-title":"Partial recovery of abnormal insula and dorsolateral prefrontal connectivity to cognitive networks in chronic low back pain after treatment","volume":"36","author":"\u010ceko","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hum. brain Mapp."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1186\/s10194-020-01156-9","article-title":"Cognitive and sensorimotor function in participants being treated for trigeminal neuralgia pain","volume":"21","author":"Coats","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. headache pain"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17753","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3272-12.2012","article-title":"Altered functional brain connectivity in a non-clinical sample of young adults with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"32","author":"Cocchi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1934","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1999.82.4.1934","article-title":"Pain intensity processing within the human brain: a bilateral, distributed mechanism","volume":"82","author":"Coghill","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. neurophysiology"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2021.102638","article-title":"Enhanced amygdala-frontal operculum functional connectivity during rest in women with chronic neck pain: associations with impaired conditioned pain modulation","volume":"30","author":"Coppieters","year":"2021","journal-title":"NeuroImage Clin."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpain.2016.04.005","article-title":"Relations between brain alterations and clinical pain measures in chronic musculoskeletal pain: a systematic review","volume":"17","author":"Coppieters","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Pain"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000002840","article-title":"Trigeminal neuralgia: new classification and diagnostic grading for practice and research","volume":"87","author":"Cruccu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1151525","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2023.1151525","article-title":"Identifying reproducible resting state networks and functional connectivity alterations following chronic restraint stress in anaesthetized rats","volume":"17","author":"Dai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e66340","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0066340","article-title":"Sensorimotor and pain modulation brain abnormalities in trigeminal neuralgia: a paroxysmal, sensory-triggered neuropathic pain","volume":"8","author":"Desouza","year":"2013","journal-title":"PloS one"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1177\/0333102417721677","article-title":"Triggering trigeminal neuralgia","volume":"38","author":"Di Stefano","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cephalalgia"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucli.2021.06.003","article-title":"Posterior-superior Insular deep transcranial magnetic stimulation alleviates peripheral neuropathic pain\u2014A pilot double-blind, randomized cross-over study","volume":"51","author":"Dongyang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurophysiol. Clin."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-180847","article-title":"Resting state abnormalities of the default mode network in mild cognitive impairment: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"70","author":"Eyler","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer's Dis."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2165","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000007396","article-title":"Insular and anterior cingulate cortex deep stimulation for central neuropathic pain: disassembling the percept of pain","volume":"92","author":"Galhardoni","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucli.2012.06.001","article-title":"The posterior insular-opercular region and the search of a primary cortex for pain","volume":"42","author":"Garcia-Larrea","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurophysiol. Clinique\/Clinical Neurophysiol."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1097\/PHM.0000000000000859","article-title":"Association between sensorimotor impairments and functional brain changes in patients with low back pain: a critical review","volume":"97","author":"Goossens","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys. Med. and rehabilitation"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5956","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5980-10.2011","article-title":"Different pain, different brain: thalamic anatomy in neuropathic and non-neuropathic chronic pain syndromes","volume":"31","author":"Gustin","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-3959(95)00048-w","article-title":"Central representation of chronic ongoing neuropathic pain studied by positron emission tomography","volume":"63","author":"Hsieh","year":"1995","journal-title":"Pain"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s13408-019-0072-5","article-title":"A modified hodgkin\u2013huxley model to show the effect of motor cortex stimulation on the trigeminal neuralgia network","volume":"9","author":"Khodashenas","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Math. Neurosci."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3795","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.20807","article-title":"Dysregulation of working memory and default\u2010mode networks in schizophrenia using independent component analysis, an fBIRN and MCIC study","volume":"30","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hum. brain Mapp."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1594","DOI":"10.1097\/j.pain.0000000000001541","article-title":"Somatotopically specific primary somatosensory connectivity to salience and default mode networks encodes clinical pain","volume":"160","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pain"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"241; author reply 243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2011.04.005","article-title":"Frontal pole function: what is specifically human?","volume":"15","author":"Koechlin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends cognitive Sci."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/s0924-9338(97)83296-8","article-title":"The mini international neuropsychiatric interview (MINI). A short diagnostic structured interview: reliability and validity according to the CIDI","volume":"12","author":"Lecrubier","year":"1997","journal-title":"Eur. psychiatry"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4767","DOI":"10.1113\/JP276359","article-title":"Deep continuous theta burst stimulation of the operculo\u2010insular cortex selectively affects A\u03b4\u2010fibre heat pain","volume":"596","author":"Lenoir","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. physiology"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1518","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.25310","article-title":"Probing the role of the right inferior frontal gyrus during pain\u2010related empathy processing: evidence from fMRI and TMS","volume":"42","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum. brain Mapp."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.20359","article-title":"Estimating the number of independent components for functional magnetic resonance imaging data","volume":"28","author":"Li","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hum. brain Mapp."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1574","DOI":"10.1111\/head.12441","article-title":"Trigeminal Neuralgia\u2013A prospective systematic study of clinical characteristics in 158 patients","volume":"54","author":"Maarbjerg","year":"2014","journal-title":"Headache J. Head Face Pain"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1186\/s10194-021-01308-5","article-title":"Whole-brain morphological alterations associated with trigeminal neuralgia","volume":"22","author":"Mo","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. headache pain"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4561","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.26400","article-title":"Within\u2010network brain connectivity during a social optimism task is related to personal optimism and optimism for in\u2010group members","volume":"44","author":"Moser","year":"2023","journal-title":"Hum. brain Mapp."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresrev.2010.05.005","article-title":"The cerebellum and pain: passive integrator or active participator?","volume":"65","author":"Moulton","year":"2010","journal-title":"Brain Res. Rev."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1002\/ejp.911","article-title":"Brain structural changes in patients with chronic myofascial pain","volume":"21","author":"Niddam","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pain"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14924","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5538-08.2009","article-title":"Brain mechanisms supporting discrimination of sensory features of pain: a new model","volume":"29","author":"Oshiro","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1727","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pain.2014.05.023","article-title":"The responsive amygdala: treatment-induced alterations in functional connectivity in pediatric complex regional pain syndrome","volume":"155","author":"Simons","year":"2014","journal-title":"PAIN\u00ae"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s701-002-8269-4","article-title":"Anatomical observations during microvascular decompression for idiopathic trigeminal neuralgia (with correlations between topography of pain and site of the neurovascular conflict). Prospective study in a series of 579 patients","volume":"144","author":"Sindou","year":"2002","journal-title":"Acta Neurochir."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-6653.2011.02008.x","article-title":"An independent component analysis of fMRI data of graphene\u2013colour synaesthesia","volume":"5","author":"Specht","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. neuropsychology"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3823","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.01162.2005","article-title":"Right-lateralized pain processing in the human cortex: an FMRI study","volume":"95","author":"Symonds","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. neurophysiology"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102027","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2019.102027","article-title":"Modular organization of brain resting state networks in patients with classical trigeminal neuralgia","volume":"24","author":"Tsai","year":"2019","journal-title":"NeuroImage Clin."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.3171\/2014.8.GKS141487","article-title":"Repeat gamma knife surgery for recurrent trigeminal neuralgia: long-term outcomes and systematic review","volume":"121","author":"Tuleasca","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1561","DOI":"10.1097\/j.pain.0000000000000951","article-title":"Altered brain structure and function associated with sensory and affective components of classic trigeminal neuralgia","volume":"158","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pain"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"792695","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.792695","article-title":"Structural and functional asymmetry in precentral and postcentral gyrus in patients with unilateral chronic shoulder pain","volume":"13","author":"Wei","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Neurology"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1089\/brain.2012.0073","article-title":"Conn: a functional connectivity toolbox for correlated and anticorrelated brain networks","volume":"2","author":"Whitfield-Gabrieli","year":"2012","journal-title":"Brain connect."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0193(1996)4:1<58::AID-HBM4>3.0.CO;2-O","article-title":"A unified statistical approach for determining significant signals in images of cerebral activation","volume":"4","author":"Worsley","year":"1996","journal-title":"Hum. brain Mapp."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.3171\/2024.11.JNS241935","article-title":"Stratifying trigeminal neuralgia and characterizing an abnormal property of brain functional organization: a resting-state fMRI and machine learning study","volume":"1","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2018.00446","article-title":"The effect of high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation of the right inferior frontal gyrus on empathy in healthy individuals","volume":"12","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1495","DOI":"10.4103\/NRR.NRR-D-23-00493","article-title":"Resting-state brain network remodeling after different nerve reconstruction surgeries: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study in brachial plexus injury rats","volume":"20","author":"Xiang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neural Regen. Res."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"888716","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2022.888716","article-title":"Non-invasive brain stimulation for chronic pain: state of the art and future directions","volume":"15","author":"Xiong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Mol. Neurosci."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpain.2022.02.012","article-title":"Altered structural and functional connectivity of salience network in patients with classic trigeminal neuralgia","volume":"23","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. pain"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1097\/AJP.0000000000000578","article-title":"Altered spontaneous brain activity in patients with idiopathic trigeminal neuralgia: a resting-state functional MRI study","volume":"34","author":"Yuan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. J. Pain"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"CD007312","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD007312.pub2","article-title":"Neurosurgical interventions for the treatment of classical trigeminal neuralgia","volume":"2011","author":"Zakrzewska","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1166","DOI":"10.1097\/j.pain.0000000000000853","article-title":"Evaluating the impact of trigeminal neuralgia","volume":"158","author":"Zakrzewska","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pain"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17448069241300939","DOI":"10.1177\/17448069241300939","article-title":"Altered intra-and inter-network functional activity among migraine, chronic migraine, and trigeminal neuralgia","volume":"20","author":"Zhou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Pain"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Physiology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fphys.2025.1633028\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,5]],"date-time":"2025-08-05T05:25:10Z","timestamp":1754371510000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fphys.2025.1633028\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,5]]},"references-count":59,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fphys.2025.1633028"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fphys.2025.1633028","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-042X"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1664-042X"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,5]]},"article-number":"1633028"}}