{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T14:29:49Z","timestamp":1792160989367,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":89,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783555200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Physiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Caffeine, the world\u2019s most widely consumed psychoactive substance, is a well-established ergogenic aid. Its performance-enhancing effects are mediated through multiple, interacting mechanisms that follow a dose-dependent hierarchy. The primary and most significant action at common dietary doses is the antagonism of central adenosine A\n                    <jats:sub>1<\/jats:sub>\n                    and A\n                    <jats:sub>2a<\/jats:sub>\n                    receptors. This central blockade reduces perceived effort and fatigue, increases arousal, and modulates pain perception, thereby lowering the neural cost of exercise. This central effect is complemented by secondary peripheral metabolic actions, such as the promotion of lipolysis, though their role as primary drivers in exercising humans is supported mainly by experimental models. A direct effect on skeletal muscle calcium handling occurs only at supra-physiological concentrations and is not relevant in practice. The integration of these mechanisms leads to significant but task-dependent performance outcomes. The most robust and consistent benefits are observed for aerobic endurance exercise. Effects on strength, power, and high-intensity intermittent performance are more variable and are largely mediated by neurological and perceptual factors, explaining their greater consistency in protocols involving fatigue. For sports requiring cognitive skill, caffeine reliably enhances reaction time, vigilance, and accuracy via central nervous system stimulation. The ergogenic response is highly individualized, shaped by a complex interplay of dose, timing, genetics, and habitual use. Furthermore, preliminary evidence suggests caffeine may modulate post-exercise recovery by potentially accelerating muscle glycogen resynthesis when co-ingested with carbohydrates and by improving muscle perfusion. However, leveraging any potential recovery benefit necessitates extremely careful timing to avoid sleep disruption, as protecting sleep quality is a paramount recovery priority. Future research should develop sport- and context-specific protocols, clarify long-term adaptations, and advance personalized strategies that integrate genetic, habitual, and temporal factors to maximize benefits and minimize adverse effects, reinforcing caffeine\u2019s role as a cornerstone of evidence-based sports nutrition.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2026.1871149","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T04:22:10Z","timestamp":1783570930000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Caffeine and human performance: from molecular mechanisms to exercise and recovery"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Jingzhi","family":"Leng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Sports and Human Science, Key Laboratory of Sports and Physical Fitness Health of Ministry of Education, Beijing Sport University","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jingjing","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Sports and Human Science, Key Laboratory of Sports and Physical Fitness Health of Ministry of Education, Beijing Sport University","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zheheng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University, School of Medicine","place":["Shanghai, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yimin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Sports and Human Science, Key Laboratory of Sports and Physical Fitness Health of Ministry of Education, Beijing Sport University","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juntao","family":"Cui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physical Education, Qingdao University","place":["Qingdao, China"]},{"name":"Institute of Brain Science and Disease, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Shandong Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Brain Diseases, Qingdao University","place":["Qingdao, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2014.981849","article-title":"The ingestion of a caffeinated energy drink improves jump performance and activity patterns in elite badminton players","volume":"33","author":"Abian","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. 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