{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T21:34:07Z","timestamp":1788903247729,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,19]],"date-time":"2025-08-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755561600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Plant Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Water and nitrogen are essential elements prone to deficiency during plant growth. Current water\u2013fertilizer monitoring technologies are unable to meet the demands of large-scale <jats:italic>Glycyrrhiza uralensis<\/jats:italic> cultivation. Near-ground remote sensing technology based on unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) multispectral image is widely used for crop growth monitoring and agricultural management and has proven to be effective for assessing water and nitrogen status. However, integrated models tailored for medicinal plants remain underexplored.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>This study collected UAV multispectral images of <jats:italic>G. uralensis<\/jats:italic> under various water and nitrogen treatments and extracted vegetation indices (VIs). Field phenotypic indicators (PIs), including plant height (PH), tiller number (TN), soil plant analysis development values (SPAD), and nitrogen content (NC), were synchronously measured. Models were constructed using backpropagation neural network (BP), support vector machine (SVM), and random forest (RF) to evaluate PIs to predict yield and monitor growth dynamics. Yield predictions based on PIs were further compared with validate model performance.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The results demonstrated that both the RF algorithm and excess green index (EXG) exhibited versatility in growth monitoring and yield prediction. PIs collectively achieved high-precision predictions (mean 0.42 \u2264 <jats:italic>R<jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup><\/jats:italic> \u2264 0.94), with the prediction of PH using green leaf index (GLI) in BP algorithm attaining peak accuracy (<jats:italic>R\u00b2<\/jats:italic> = 0.94). VIs and PIs exhibited comparable predictive capacity for yield, with multi-indicators integrated modeling significantly enhancing performance: VIs achieved <jats:italic>R\u00b2<\/jats:italic> = 0.87 under RF algorithms, whereas PIs reached <jats:italic>R\u00b2<\/jats:italic> = 0.81 using BP algorithms. Further analysis revealed that PH served as the central predictor, achieving <jats:italic>R\u00b2<\/jats:italic> = 0.74 under standalone predictions of RF algorithm, whereas other parameters primarily enhanced model accuracy through complementarity effects, thereby providing supplementary diagnostic value.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>This research established a high-precision, time-efficient, and practical UAV remote sensing\u2013based method for growth monitoring and yield prediction in <jats:italic>G. uralensis<\/jats:italic>, offering a novel solution for standardized production of medicinal plant resources.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2025.1612898","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,19]],"date-time":"2025-08-19T05:20:09Z","timestamp":1755580809000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Integrated diagnostics and time series sensitivity assessment for growth monitoring of a medicinal plant (Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch.) based on unmanned aerial vehicle multispectral sensors"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Ao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Haibin","family":"Guan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhiheng","family":"Dong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yan","family":"Xue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fengyu","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lingjiang","family":"Meng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiuling","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoqin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yang","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0300056","article-title":"Remote sensing estimation of sugar beet SPAD based on un-manned aerial vehicle multispectral imagery","volume":"19","author":"Ali","year":"2024","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.34133\/plantphenomics.0268","article-title":"Counting canola: toward generalizable aerial plant detection models","volume":"6","author":"Andvaag","year":"2024","journal-title":"Plant Phenomics"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0322851","article-title":"OBM-RFEcv: An adaptive ensemble model for monitoring key growth indicators of Gerbera using multi-spectral image fusion features","volume":"20","author":"Ashrafuzzaman","year":"2025","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.34133\/plantphenomics.0019","article-title":"Dynamic UAV phenotyping for rice disease resistance analysis based on multisource data","volume":"5","author":"Bai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Plant Phenomics"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26062599","article-title":"Phenotypic physiological and metabolomic analyses reveal crucial metabolic pathways in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa willd.) in response to PEG-6000 induced drought stress","volume":"26","author":"Bao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. 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