{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T06:07:06Z","timestamp":1784700426936,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784678400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Plant Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Precision agriculture increasingly relies on detailed structural information, such as canopy height and canopy volume, to enhance crop health monitoring and operational safety. However, existing methods based on costly LiDAR or RGB-D sensors are often impractical for large-scale deployment in dynamic and unstructured horticultural environments. Furthermore, conventional 2D segmentation and SLAM-based pipelines typically generate sparse, geometrically inconsistent semantic maps which are insufficient for actionable structural analysis in agricultural applications. To overcome these limitations, we propose a monocular 3D structural mapping framework tailored for horticultural plants via semantic scene completion. At inference, the proposed model takes a single RGB image as input and predicts voxel-wise geometry and semantics, from which task-oriented structural maps, including canopy height, canopy volume, and obstacle-aware traversability layers, are derived. Specifically, we first introduce a Depth-Aware Decoder Module that explicitly recovers depth in the spatial domain and fuses 2D-to-3D features, thereby mitigating depth ambiguity and reducing reliance on accurate pose. Second, an NCS-Guided Geometry Encoder is designed to inject normalized depth into voxel positional embeddings, enabling self-attention to perform global relational modeling within a depth-aware geometric coordinate system. In addition, a Global Encoder is utilized to refine local structural details, while an occupancy head produces the final 3D semantic completion outputs. We construct a horticultural 3D semantic scene dataset using an RGB-D sensor, which serves as a benchmark for evaluating our method, while the deployed model remains RGB-only. Extensive quantitative and qualitative experiments are conducted on both the Semantic-KITTI dataset and our dataset. On our dataset, the method achieves 82.31% occupancy IoU, 84.26% mIoU, and 86.25% precision. Beyond voxel-level evaluation, manual field measurements further show canopy height MAE values of 0.019-0.026\u00a0m and\u00a0canopy volume proxy relative errors of 8.4%-11.4%. These results demonstrate the\u00a0effectiveness of our approach in real-world agricultural scenarios, providing actionable structural insights for crop monitoring and autonomous robotic operations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2026.1825547","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T05:55:46Z","timestamp":1784699746000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Low-cost monocular RGB-based 3D structural mapping for horticultural plants via semantic scene completion"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Ruijun","family":"Jing","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Instrument and Electronics, North University of China","place":["Taiyuan, China"]},{"name":"School of Software, Shanxi Agricultural University","place":["Taiyuan, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rui","family":"An","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Plant Protection, Shanxi Agricultural University","place":["Taiyuan, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhuoxing","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Plant Protection, Shanxi Agricultural University","place":["Taiyuan, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiliang","family":"Mu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Instrument and Electronics, North University of China","place":["Taiyuan, China"]},{"name":"Shanxi Key Laboratory of Ferroelectric Physical Micro-nano Devices and Systems, North University of China","place":["Taiyuan, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jing","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Automation and Software Engineering, Shanxi University","place":["Taiyuan, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhiguo","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Plant Protection, Shanxi Agricultural University","place":["Taiyuan, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruiyan","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Plant Protection, Shanxi Agricultural University","place":["Taiyuan, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiujian","family":"Chou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Instrument and Electronics, North University of China","place":["Taiyuan, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","unstructured":"Three cars approaching within 100m! enhancing distant geometry by tri-axis voxel scanning for camera-based semantic scene completion\n          \n          \n            \n              Bae\n              J.\n            \n            \n              Ha\n              J.\n            \n            \n              Kim\n              H. 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