{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T14:54:59Z","timestamp":1790780099397,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":186,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790726400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Plant Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>The rhizosphere is a living physical space that is constantly evolving and is characterized by a complex interplay between beneficial microbes, pathogens, and plants, mediated by molecular and ecological interactions. These three-way relationships constitute a rhizosphere \u201ctriangular warfare system,\u201d which controls plant health, nutrient uptake, disease resistance, and plant resilience. This review provides a mechanistic overview of the molecular, metabolic and ecological processes underlying these tripartite interactions. We discuss how plants integrate pattern-triggered immunity (PTI), effector-triggered immunity (ETI), microbiome exudation, and hormone signaling to select beneficial microbes to exclude pathogen entry. Beneficial microbes deploy volatile organic compounds, induction of systemic resistance (ISR), secretion systems, phytotoxins, siderophores, lytic enzymes, and microbiome-disrupting strategies to enhance plant fitness, whereas pathogens use virulence effectors, lytic enzymes, secretion systems, phytotoxins, siderophores, and microbiome-disrupting strategies to overcome host defenses and restructure rhizosphere communities. Recent advances in multi-omics have revealed the intricate signaling networks, metabolic interactions, and microbial competition shaping these relationships under various environmental conditions. We further explore emerging opportunities in microbiome engineering, synthetic microbial consortia and disease-suppressive soil management for sustainable crop protection. This review synthesizes existing mechanistic knowledge and introduces the concept of \u2018rhizosphere triangular warfare\u2019 as a stepping stone toward the next generation of microbiome-based agriculture and precision rhizosphere engineering under environmental changes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2026.1942866","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T13:59:38Z","timestamp":1790776778000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Rhizosphere triangular warfare: mechanistic insights for plant- beneficial microbe- pathogen interactions"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Pratiksha","family":"Singh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agriculture Science, LNCT University","place":["Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India"]},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Biotechnology and Genetic Improvement (Guangxi), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs\/Guangxi Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Genetic Improvement\/Sugarcane Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences\/Sugarcane Research Centre, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences","place":["Nanning, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rajesh Kumar","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Biotechnology and Genetic Improvement (Guangxi), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs\/Guangxi Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Genetic Improvement\/Sugarcane Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences\/Sugarcane Research Centre, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences","place":["Nanning, China"]},{"name":"Department of Research and Development, Agromaxx Industry","place":["Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dao-Jun","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Biotechnology and Genetic Improvement (Guangxi), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs\/Guangxi Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Genetic Improvement\/Sugarcane Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences\/Sugarcane Research Centre, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences","place":["Nanning, China"]},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Hexi Corridor Resources Utilisation of Gansu, Hexi University","place":["Zhangye, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohini Prabha","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Plant Breeding, Punjab Agricultural University","place":["Ludhiana, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bao-Qing","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Biotechnology and Genetic Improvement (Guangxi), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs\/Guangxi Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Genetic Improvement\/Sugarcane Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences\/Sugarcane Research Centre, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences","place":["Nanning, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiu-Peng","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Biotechnology and Genetic Improvement (Guangxi), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs\/Guangxi Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Genetic Improvement\/Sugarcane Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences\/Sugarcane Research Centre, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences","place":["Nanning, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sudhir Kumar","family":"Upadhyay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research and Development Cell, Lovely Professional University","place":["Punjab, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yang-Rui","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Biotechnology and Genetic Improvement (Guangxi), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs\/Guangxi Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Genetic Improvement\/Sugarcane Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences\/Sugarcane Research Centre, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences","place":["Nanning, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22169036","article-title":"Effects of abiotic stress on soil microbiome","volume":"22","author":"Abdul Rahman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. 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