{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T07:22:56Z","timestamp":1790320976398,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,28]],"date-time":"2021-05-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1622160000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>This work investigates the relationship between goals and mitigation behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy. Study 1 (pilot) identified goals ascribed to following and violating mitigation-related indications. Study 2 investigated the structure of and link between COVID-related goals and behaviors in a large community sample (<jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic> = 995, 301 men). Our results showed substantial relationships between goals and behaviors. Goals were best described by a bi-dimensional structure (being safe vs. being free), whereas behaviors clustered into a three-component structure (hygiene, distancing, going out). Hierarchical multiple regressions demonstrated the incremental validity of goals in the prediction of behaviors. Network analysis suggested that goals imbued with social content were more directly related to both risky and preventive behaviors. Motivational aspects emerged as important contributors to the organization of behaviors in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.635406","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,28]],"date-time":"2021-05-28T05:45:40Z","timestamp":1622180740000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Would You Rather Be Safe or Free? Motivational and Behavioral Aspects in COVID-19 Mitigation"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Giulio","family":"Costantini","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"Di Sarno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emanuele","family":"Preti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juliette","family":"Richetin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"Perugini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/per.2281","article-title":"Psychological and Behavioural Responses to Coronavirus Disease 2019: the Role of Personality.","author":"Aschwanden","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Personal."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.03.27.20042820","article-title":"Evaluating COVID-19 public health messaging in Italy?: self-reported compliance and growing mental health concerns.","author":"Barari","year":"2020","journal-title":"medRxiv"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-020-0884-z","article-title":"Using social and behavioural science to support COVID-19 pandemic response.","volume":"4","author":"Bavel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1177\/0013164404272507","article-title":"Gradient projection algorithms and software for arbitrary rotation criteria in factor analysis.","volume":"65","author":"Bernaards","year":"2005","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol. Meas."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-5823.2010.00112.x","article-title":"Selection bias in web surveys.","volume":"78","author":"Bethlehem","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. Stat. Rev."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/chgkn","article-title":"Adaptive and dark personality traits in the Covid-19 pandemic: predicting health-behavior endorsement and the appeal of public-health messages.","author":"Blagov","year":"2020","journal-title":"PsyArXiv"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1093\/abm\/kaaa049","article-title":"Social distancing as a health behavior: county-level movement in the united states during the COVID-19 pandemic is associated with conventional health behaviors.","volume":"54","author":"Bourassa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Behav. Med."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"912","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30460-8","article-title":"The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: rapid review of the evidence.","volume":"395","author":"Brooks","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1948550620940539","article-title":"Political Ideology Predicts Perceptions of the Threat of COVID-19 (and Susceptibility to Fake News About It).","volume":"11","author":"Calvillo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1948550620942708","article-title":"Affirming Basic Psychological Needs Promotes Mental Well-Being During the COVID-19 Outbreak.","author":"Cantarero","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1590\/2237-6089-2020-0029","article-title":"Personality differences and COVID-19: are extroversion and conscientiousness personality traits associated with engagement with containment measures?","volume":"42","author":"Carvalho","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Psychiatry Psychother."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1093\/biomet\/asn034","article-title":"Extended Bayesian information criteria for model selection with large model spaces.","volume":"95","author":"Chen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biometrika"},{"key":"B13","author":"Comrey","year":"1992","journal-title":"A First Course in Factor Analysis."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/z2x9a","article-title":"Social psychological measurements of COVID-19: coronavirus perceived threat, government response, impacts, and experiences questionnaires.","author":"Conway","year":"2020","journal-title":"PsyArXiv"},{"key":"B15","year":"2020","journal-title":"R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrp.2014.07.003","article-title":"State of the aRt personality research: a tutorial on network analysis of personality data in R.","volume":"54","author":"Costantini","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Res. Personal."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1002\/per.2150","article-title":"A framework for testing causality in personality research.","volume":"32","author":"Costantini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Personal."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2017.06.011","article-title":"Stability and variability of personality networks. A tutorial on recent developments in network psychometrics.","volume":"136","author":"Costantini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1002\/per.2237","article-title":"Uncovering the motivational core of traits: the case of conscientiousness.","volume":"34","author":"Costantini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Personal."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(20)30073-0","article-title":"Psychological interventions for people affected by the COVID-19 epidemic.","volume":"7","author":"Duan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"B21","first-page":"235","article-title":"The goal construct in psychology","author":"Elliot","year":"2008","journal-title":"Handbook of Motivation Science"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-017-0862-1","article-title":"Estimating psychological networks and their accuracy: a tutorial paper.","volume":"50","author":"Epskamp","year":"","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"B23","author":"Epskamp","year":"","journal-title":"qgraph: Graph plotting methods, psychometric data visualization and graphical model estimation. R package version 1.5."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v048.i04","article-title":"qgraph: network Visualizations of Relationships in Psychometric Data.","volume":"48","author":"Epskamp","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1037\/met0000167","article-title":"A tutorial on regularized partial correlation networks.","volume":"23","author":"Epskamp","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychol. Methods"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1080\/00273171.2018.1454823","article-title":"The Gaussian Graphical Model in Cross-Sectional and Time-Series Data.","volume":"53","author":"Epskamp","year":"","journal-title":"Multivariate Behav. Res."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02323.x","article-title":"A meta-analysis of research on protection motivation theory.","volume":"30","author":"Floyd","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2605.190995","article-title":"Nonpharmaceutical measures for pandemic influenza in nonhealthcare settings\u2014Social distancing measures.","volume":"26","author":"Fong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B29","first-page":"2020","article-title":"Extended Bayesian information criteria for Gaussian graphical models.","volume":"22","author":"Foygel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Neural Inf. Process. Syst."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-8733(78)90021-7","article-title":"Centrality in social networks conceptual clarification.","volume":"1","author":"Freeman","year":"1978","journal-title":"Soc. Netw."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jesp.2004.04.003","article-title":"The influence of abstract and concrete mindsets on anticipating and guiding others\u2019 self-regulatory efforts.","volume":"40","author":"Freitas","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Exp. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470713150.ch2","article-title":"Contextualizing health behaviors: the role of personal goals","author":"Gebhardt","year":"2006","journal-title":"Self\u2212Regulation in Health Behavior"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.1998.86.3.755","article-title":"Competing personal goals and exercise behaviour.","volume":"86","author":"Gebhardt","year":"1998","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Skills"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1177\/1094428104263675","article-title":"Factor Retention Decisions in Exploratory Factor Analysis: a Tutorial on Parallel Analysis.","volume":"7","author":"Hayton","year":"2004","journal-title":"Organ. Res. Methods"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrp.2008.12.011","article-title":"The future of person-situation integration in the interface between traits and goals: a bottom-up framework.","volume":"43","author":"Heller","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Res. Personal."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02289447","article-title":"A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis.","volume":"30","author":"Horn","year":"1965","journal-title":"Psychometrika"},{"key":"B37","year":"2020","journal-title":"Coronavirus, le misure adottate dal Governo"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2020.00152","article-title":"Gender Differences in Patients With COVID-19: focus on Severity and Mortality.","volume":"8","author":"Jin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"B39","author":"Jones","year":"2020","journal-title":"Networktools: Tools for Identifying Important Nodes in Networks."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/00273171.2019.1614898","article-title":"Bridge Centrality: a Network Approach to Understanding Comorbidity.","author":"Jones","year":"2019","journal-title":"Multivariate Behav. Res."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/1948550620931634","article-title":"Measuring Realistic and Symbolic Threats of COVID-19 and their Unique Impacts on Well-being and Adherence to Public Health Behaviors.","volume":"2020","author":"Kachanoff","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(20)30162-6","article-title":"Interventions to mitigate early spread of SARS-CoV-2 in Singapore: a modelling study.","volume":"20","author":"Koo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.adms.2015.04.001","article-title":"Chapter Three - The architecture of goal systems: multifinality, equifinality, and counterfinality in means\u2014End Relations","author":"Kruglanski","year":"2015","journal-title":"Advances in Motivation Science"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2601(02)80008-9","article-title":"A theory of goal systems","author":"Kruglanski","year":"2002","journal-title":"Advances in Experimental Social Psychology"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1256","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691620917676","article-title":"Habitual behavior is goal-driven.","volume":"15","author":"Kruglanski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Perspect. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/5tmsh","article-title":"Chinese public\u2019s knowledge, perceived severity, and perceived controllability of the COVID-19 and their associations with emotional and behavioural reactions, social participation, and precautionary behaviour: a national survey.","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"PsyArXiv"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/S1054-139X(00)00209-3","article-title":"Role of self-presentation in the health practices of a sample of Irish adolescents.","volume":"28","author":"Martin","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Adolesc. Health"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1037\/a0028085","article-title":"Identifying careless responses in survey data.","volume":"17","author":"Meade","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol. Methods"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02308.x","article-title":"Prediction and intervention in health-related behavior: a meta-analytic review of protection motivation theory.","volume":"30","author":"Milne","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"B50","year":"2020","journal-title":"Encouraging Adoption of Protective Behaviors to Mitigate the Spread of COVID-19: Strategies for Behavior Change."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/10463283.2011.643698","article-title":"Future thought and behaviour change.","volume":"23","author":"Oettingen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"B52","first-page":"418","article-title":"Health behavior change by self-regulation of goal pursuit: mental contrasting with implementation intentions","author":"Oettingen","year":"2018","journal-title":"The Routledge International Handbook of Self-Control in Health and Well-Being"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1002\/1099-0992(200009\/10)30:5<705::AID-EJSP18>3.0.CO;2-#","article-title":"Predicting and understanding behavioral volitions: the interplay between goals and behaviors.","volume":"30","author":"Perugini","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. J. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e261","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(20)30073-6","article-title":"The effect of control strategies to reduce social mixing on outcomes of the COVID-19 epidemic in Wuhan, China: a modelling study.","volume":"5","author":"Prem","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1037\/a0016993","article-title":"Can implementation intentions and text messages promote brisk walking? A randomized trial.","volume":"29","author":"Prestwich","year":"2010","journal-title":"Health Psychol."},{"key":"B56","article-title":"The psychological impact of epidemic and pandemic outbreaks on healthcare workers: rapid review of the evidence.","volume":"22","author":"Preti","year":"","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-020-01204-w","article-title":"Personality disorders in time of pandemic.","volume":"22","author":"Preti","year":"","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1225","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30627-9","article-title":"COVID-19 and Italy: what next?","volume":"395","author":"Remuzzi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B59","author":"Revelle","year":"2019","journal-title":"psych: Procedures for Personality and Psychological Research."},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1177\/0146167210390522","article-title":"Not doing is not the opposite of doing: implications for attitudinal models of behavioral prediction.","volume":"37","author":"Richetin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1080\/00223980.1975.9915803","article-title":"A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change.","volume":"91","author":"Rogers","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Psychol."},{"key":"B62","first-page":"153","article-title":"Cognitive and physiological processes in fear appeals and attitude change: a revised theory of protection motivation","author":"Rogers","year":"1983","journal-title":"Social Psychophysiology: A sourcebook"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2018.10.017","article-title":"\u201cLikes\u201d as social rewards: their role in online social comparison and decisions to like other People\u2019s selfies.","volume":"92","author":"Rosenthal-von der P\u00fctten","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-010416-044007","article-title":"Health behavior change: moving from observation to intervention.","volume":"68","author":"Sheeran","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691618776263","article-title":"Social Rewards: from Basic Social Building Blocks to Complex Social Behavior.","volume":"13","author":"Tamir","year":"2018","journal-title":"Perspect. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1111\/jcom.12163","article-title":"Exposure to health (mis)information: lagged effects on young adults\u2019 health behaviors and potential pathways.","volume":"65","author":"Tan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Commun."},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.7326\/M20-1083","article-title":"Psychological impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on health care workers in singapore.","volume":"173","author":"Tan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/ydt95","article-title":"National identity predicts public health support during a global pandemic.","author":"Van Bavel","year":"2020","journal-title":"PsyArxiv"},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17051729","article-title":"Immediate psychological responses and associated factors during the initial stage of the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) epidemic among the general population in China.","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2020.03.007","article-title":"How to improve adherence with quarantine: rapid review of the evidence.","volume":"182","author":"Webster","year":"2020","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-44588-5_10","article-title":"Planning and the Control of Action","author":"Wieber","year":"2017","journal-title":"Knowledge and Action"},{"key":"B72","year":"","journal-title":"Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) Pandemic."},{"key":"B73","year":"","journal-title":"WHO Director-General\u2019s opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19 - 23 July 2020."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1359105321995964","article-title":"Exploring the impacts of media use and media trust on health behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic in China.","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Health Psychol."},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2021.106424","article-title":"Applying social norms interventions to increase adherence to COVID-19 prevention and control guidelines.","volume":"145","author":"Young","year":"2021","journal-title":"Prev. Med."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.635406\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,28]],"date-time":"2021-05-28T05:45:59Z","timestamp":1622180759000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.635406\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,28]]},"references-count":75,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.635406"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.635406","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,28]]},"article-number":"635406"}}