{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T03:43:56Z","timestamp":1792035836170,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,8]],"date-time":"2021-06-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1623110400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>High stakes can be stressful whether one is telling the truth or lying. However, liars can feel extra fear from worrying to be discovered than truth-tellers, and according to the \u201cleakage theory,\u201d the fear is almost impossible to be repressed. Therefore, we assumed that analyzing the facial expression of fear could reveal deceits. Detecting and analyzing the subtle leaked fear facial expressions is a challenging task for laypeople. It is, however, a relatively easy job for computer vision and machine learning. To test the hypothesis, we analyzed video clips from a game show \u201cThe moment of truth\u201d by using OpenFace (for outputting the Action Units (AUs) of fear and face landmarks) and WEKA (for classifying the video clips in which the players were lying or telling the truth). The results showed that some algorithms achieved an accuracy of &amp;gt;80% merely using AUs of fear. Besides, the total duration of AU20 of fear was found to be shorter under the lying condition than that from the truth-telling condition. Further analysis found that the reason for a shorter duration in the lying condition was that the time window from peak to offset of AU20 under the lying condition was less than that under the truth-telling condition. The results also showed that facial movements around the eyes were more asymmetrical when people are telling lies. All the results suggested that facial clues can be used to detect deception, and fear could be a cue for distinguishing liars from truth-tellers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.675097","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,8]],"date-time":"2021-06-08T01:27:10Z","timestamp":1623115630000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":29,"title":["Catching a Liar Through Facial Expression of Fear"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Xunbing","family":"Shen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gaojie","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Caoyuan","family":"Niu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhencai","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781316275672.011","article-title":"10. The truth is written all over your face! involuntary aspects of emotional facial expressions","volume-title":"The Expression of Emotion: Philosophical, Psychological and Legal Perspectives","author":"Baker","year":"2016"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1109\/FG.2018.00019","article-title":"Openface 2.0: facial behavior analysis toolkit","volume-title":"Paper Presented at the 2018 13th IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition (FG 2018)","author":"Baltrusaitis","year":"2018"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.17577\/IJERTV5IS020336","article-title":"Lie detection based on facial micro expression body language and speech analysis","volume":"5","author":"Barathi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2014.02.009","article-title":"Automatic decoding of facial movements reveals deceptive pain expressions","volume":"24","author":"Bartlett","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Biol"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1109\/CSPA.2019.8696059","article-title":"Micro-expression spotting using facial landmarks","volume-title":"Paper Presented at the 2019 IEEE 15th International Colloquium on Signal Processing and Its Applications (CSPA)","author":"Beh","year":"2019"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1089","DOI":"10.5555\/1005332.1044695","article-title":"No unbiased estimator of the variance of k-fold cross-validation","volume":"5","author":"Bengio","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327957pspr1003_2","article-title":"Accuracy of deception judgments","volume":"10","author":"Bond","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2008.00654.x","article-title":"The pupil as a measure of emotional arousal and autonomic activation","volume":"45","author":"Bradley","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00058655","article-title":"Bagging predictors","volume":"24","author":"Breiman","year":"1996","journal-title":"Mach. Learn"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e995","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.13336","article-title":"Identifying liars through automatic decoding of children's facial expressions","volume":"91","author":"Bruer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Child Dev"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jarmac.2012.04.002","article-title":"Detection of deception researchers needs to collaborate with experienced practitioners","volume":"1","author":"Buckley","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1672","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.01672","article-title":"Opinion: microexpressions are not the best way to catch a liar","volume":"9","author":"Burgoon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Psychol"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1613\/jair.953","article-title":"SMOTE: synthetic minority over-sampling technique","volume":"16","author":"Chawla","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Artificial Intellig. Res"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.24908\/ss.v17i1\/2.13111","article-title":"Platform biometrics","volume":"17","author":"Crampton","year":"2019","journal-title":"Surveill. Soc"},{"key":"B15","article-title":"k-Nearest neighbour classifiers","author":"Cunningham","year":"2004","journal-title":"arXiv."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/1365712719851133","article-title":"The detection of deception during trials: ignoring the nonverbal communication of witnesses is not the solution\u2014a response to Vrij and Turgeon (2018)","volume":"24","author":"Denault","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Evid. Proof"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.129.1.74","article-title":"Cues to deception","volume":"129","author":"DePaulo","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1280.010","article-title":"Darwin, deception, and facial expression","volume":"1000","author":"Ekman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1080\/00332747.1969.11023575","article-title":"Nonverbal leakage and clues to deception","volume":"32","author":"Ekman","year":"1969","journal-title":"Psychiatry"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01115465","article-title":"Measuring facial movement","volume":"1","author":"Ekman","year":"1976","journal-title":"Environ. Psychol. Nonverbal Behav"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1515\/semi.1976.16.1.23","article-title":"Body movement and voice pitch in deceptive interaction","volume":"16","author":"Ekman","year":"1976","journal-title":"Semiotica"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.1981.tb02919.x","article-title":"The symmetry of emotional and deliberate facial actions","volume":"18","author":"Ekman","year":"1981","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.72.6.1429","article-title":"The ability to detect deceit generalizes across different types of high-stake lies","volume":"72","author":"Frank","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.64.1.83","article-title":"Behavioral markers and recognizability of the smile of enjoyment","volume":"64","author":"Frank","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1145\/1656274.1656278","article-title":"The WEKA data mining software: an update","volume":"11","author":"Hall","year":"2009","journal-title":"ACM SIGKDD Explor. Newslett"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.3052","article-title":"Lie detection from multiple cues: a meta-analysis","volume":"28","author":"Hartwig","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Cogn. Psychol"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1007\/s10919-010-0102-1","article-title":"Executing facial control during deception situations","volume":"35","author":"Hurley","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Nonverbal Behav"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-7138-7","volume-title":"An Introduction to Statistical Learning.","author":"James","year":"2013"},{"key":"B29","first-page":"2461","article-title":"Scientific evidence and cue theories in deception research: reconciling findings from meta-analyses and primary experiments","volume":"12","author":"Levine","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Commun"},{"key":"B30","volume-title":"Duped: Truth-Default Theory and the Social Science of Lying and Deception","author":"Levine","year":"2019"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2545","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.02545","article-title":"Microexpressions differentiate truths from lies about future malicious intent","volume":"9","author":"Matsumoto","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Psychol"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13218719.2020.1794999","article-title":"Clusters of nonverbal behavior differentiate truths and lies about future malicious intent in checkpoint screening interviews","author":"Matsumoto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychiatry Psychol"},{"key":"B33","volume-title":"Building a deception database with high ecological validity","author":"Niu","year":"2021"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2008.02116.x","article-title":"Reading between the lies: identifying concealed and falsified emotions in universal facial expressions","volume":"19","author":"Porter","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2011.03.031","article-title":"Would I lie to you? Leakage in deceptive facial expressions relates to psychopathy and emotional intelligence","volume":"51","author":"Porter","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pers. Individ. Diff"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1007\/s10919-011-0120-7","article-title":"Secrets and lies: involuntary leakage in deceptive facial expressions as a function of emotional intensity","volume":"36","author":"Porter","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Nonverbal Behav"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1631\/jzus.B1100063","article-title":"Effects of the duration of expressions on the recognition of microexpressions","volume":"13","author":"Shen","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. B"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1109\/AUTOID.2007.380598","article-title":"Automatic deceit indication through reliable facial expressions","volume-title":"Paper Presented at the 2007 IEEE Workshop on Automatic Identification Advanced Technologies","author":"Slowe","year":"2007"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cviu.2016.01.009","article-title":"Does lie to me lie to you? An evaluation of facial clues to high-stakes deception","volume":"147","author":"Su","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comp. Vis. Image Understand"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1037\/h0093950","article-title":"Crocodile tears: facial, verbal and body language behaviours associated with genuine and fabricated remorse","volume":"36","author":"Ten Brinke","year":"","journal-title":"Law Hum. Behav"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1037\/h0093929","article-title":"Cry me a river: Identifying the behavioral consequences of extremely high-stakes interpersonal deception","volume":"36","author":"ten Brinke","year":"2012","journal-title":"Law Hum. Behav"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/j.evolhumbehav.2011.12.003","article-title":"Darwin the detective: observable facial muscle contractions reveal emotional high-stakes lies","volume":"33","author":"Ten Brinke","year":"","journal-title":"Evol. Hum. Behav"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.1110.1413","article-title":"Split or steal? Cooperative behavior when the stakes are large","volume":"58","author":"Van den Assem","year":"2012","journal-title":"Manag. Sci"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511490071.013","article-title":"13 guidelines to catch a liar","volume-title":"The Detection of Deception in Forensic Contexts","author":"Vrij","year":"2004"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-2958.2004.tb00723.x","article-title":"Detecting deceit via analyses of verbal and nonverbal behavior in children and adults","volume":"30","author":"Vrij","year":"2006","journal-title":"Hum. Commun. Res"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1006610329284","article-title":"Detecting deceit via analysis of verbal and nonverbal behavior","volume":"24","author":"Vrij","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Nonverbal Behav"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1377","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.01377","article-title":"Unraveling the misconception about deception and nervous behavior","volume":"11","author":"Vrij","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychol"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-010418-103135","article-title":"Reading lies: nonverbal communication and deception","volume":"70","author":"Vrij","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1080\/10683160108401791","article-title":"Who killed my relative? Police officers' ability to detect real-life high-stake lies","volume":"7","author":"Vrij","year":"2001","journal-title":"Psychol. Crime Law"},{"key":"B50","volume-title":"Data Mining: Practical Machine Learning Tools and Techniques","author":"Witten","year":"2016"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1080\/1068316X.2014.935777","article-title":"High stakes lies: police and non-police accuracy in detecting deception","volume":"21","author":"Wright Whelan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychol. Crime Law"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1080\/13218719.2013.839931","article-title":"High-stakes lies: verbal and nonverbal cues to deception in public appeals for help with missing or murdered relatives","volume":"21","author":"Wright Whelan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychiatry Psychol. Law"},{"key":"B53","article-title":"Deception detection in videos, in Paper Presented at the Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence","author":"Wu","year":"2018"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2007.383383","article-title":"Real-time automatic deceit detection from involuntary facial expressions","volume-title":"Paper Presented at the 2007 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition","author":"Zhang","year":"2007"},{"key":"B55","first-page":"1","article-title":"Verbal and nonverbal communication of deception","volume-title":"Advances in Experimental Social Psychology","author":"Zuckerman","year":"1981"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.675097\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,8]],"date-time":"2021-06-08T01:27:28Z","timestamp":1623115648000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.675097\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,8]]},"references-count":55,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.675097"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.675097","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1101\/2021.02.24.432646","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,8]]},"article-number":"675097"}}