{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T14:14:16Z","timestamp":1789136056345,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]],"date-time":"2021-07-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1627344000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>A question under debate in psycholinguistics is the nature of the relationship between spoken and written languages. Although it has been extensively shown that orthographic transparency, which varies across writing systems, strongly affects reading performance, its role in speech processing is much less investigated. The present study addressed this issue in Persian, whose writing system provides a possibility to assess the impact of orthographic transparency on spoken word recognition in young children at different stages of reading acquisition. In Persian, the long vowels are systematically present in the script, whereas the spelling correspondence of short vowels is progressively omitted from the script in the course of reading acquisition, thus, turning transparent into opaque spelling. Based on this unique characteristic, we tested 144 monolingual Persian-speaking nonreaders (i.e., preschoolers) and readers (second graders to fifth graders and young adults) in an auditory lexical decision task using transparent and opaque words. Overall, the results showed that, in accordance with the fact that the diacritics of short vowels are progressively omitted during the second year of schooling, the stimuli containing short vowels (opaque words) were recognized more slowly than transparent ones in third graders. Interestingly, there is a hint that the emergence of the transparency effect in the third graders was associated with an overall slower recognition speed in this group compared to their younger peers. These findings indicate that learning opaque spelling-sound correspondence might not only generate interference between the two language codes but also induce a general processing cost in the entire spoken language system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.691989","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]],"date-time":"2021-07-27T09:13:39Z","timestamp":1627377219000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["The Effect of Orthographic Transparency on Auditory Word Recognition Across the Development of Reading Proficiency"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Mehdi","family":"Bakhtiar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maryam","family":"Mokhlesin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chotiga","family":"Pattamadilok","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephen","family":"Politzer-Ahles","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Caicai","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1111\/jnp.12095","article-title":"Aphasia in Persian: implications for cognitive models of lexical processing","volume":"11","author":"Bakhtiar","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroling.2015.12.001","article-title":"Neural correlates of age of acquisition on visual word recognition in Persian","volume":"39","author":"Bakhtiar","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurolinguistics"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.3758\/s13421-014-0472-4","article-title":"Lexico-semantic effects on word naming in Persian: does age of acquisition have an effect?","volume":"43","author":"Bakhtiar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref4","article-title":"Persian orthography and its relation to literacy","volume-title":"Handbook of Orthography and Literacy.","author":"Baluch","year":"2005"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1007\/s11881-006-0014-2","article-title":"Spelling transparency and its impact on dyslexic and unimpaired children\u2019s memory for words","volume":"56","author":"Baluch","year":"","journal-title":"Ann. Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.3200\/JRLP.140.2.95-104","article-title":"Memory for words as a function of spelling transparency","volume":"140","author":"Baluch","year":"","journal-title":"J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.1991.72.3c.1327","article-title":"Visual word recognition in beginning readers of Persian","volume":"72","author":"Baluch","year":"1991","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Skills"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2012.11.001","article-title":"Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: keep it maximal","volume":"68","author":"Barr","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Mem. Lang."},{"key":"ref9","author":"Boersma","year":"2019"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3354","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.22147","article-title":"Reading acquisition reorganizes the phonological awareness network only in alphabetic writing systems","volume":"34","author":"Brennan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1359","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1194140","article-title":"How learning to read changes the cortical networks for vision and language","volume":"330","author":"Dehaene","year":"2010","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref12","first-page":"264","article-title":"Orthographic effects on phoneme monitoring","volume":"49","author":"Dijkstra","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Learn. Mem."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wocn.2007.11.002","article-title":"Novel second-language words and asymmetric lexical access","volume":"36","author":"Escudero","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Phon."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03195503","article-title":"DMDX: a windows display program with millisecond accuracy","volume":"35","author":"Forster","year":"2003","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods Instrum. Comput."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1006\/jmla.2000.2784","article-title":"Age-of-acquisition, word frequency, and neighborhood density effects on spoken word recognition by children and adults","volume":"45","author":"Garlock","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Mem. Lang."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2005.06.002","article-title":"The effects of spelling consistency on phonological awareness: a comparison of English and German","volume":"92","author":"Goswami","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1006\/jmla.1996.0033","article-title":"Masked orthographic and phonological priming in visual word recognition and naming: cross-task comparisons","volume":"35","author":"Grainger","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Mem. Lang."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.106.3.491","article-title":"Phonology, reading acquisition, and dyslexia: insights from connectionist models","volume":"106","author":"Harm","year":"1999","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref19","first-page":"34","article-title":"TOLD-P:3: Test of Language Development.","author":"Hassanzade","year":"2009"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-4115(08)62789-2","article-title":"The reading process is different for different orthographies: the orthographic depth hypothesis","volume-title":"Orthography, Phonology, Morphology, and Meaning.","author":"Katz","year":"1992"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104687","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2021.104687","article-title":"The impact of alphabetic literacy on the perception of speech sounds","author":"Kolinsky","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1494","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-016-0809-y","article-title":"Evaluating significance in linear mixed-effects models in R","volume":"49","author":"Luke","year":"2017","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"ref23","first-page":"89","article-title":"Spoken vocabulary growth and the segmental restructuring of lexical representations: precursors to phonemic awareness and early reading ability","volume-title":"Word Recognition in Beginning Literacy.","author":"Metsala","year":"1998"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1080\/01690960444000052","article-title":"Locus of orthographic effects in spoken word recognition: novel insights from the neighbour generation task","volume":"19","author":"Muneaux","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Linguist. Phonetics"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X00003241","article-title":"Merging information in speech recognition: feedback is never necessary","volume":"23","author":"Norris","year":"2000","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8435","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5791-09.2010","article-title":"How does learning to read affect speech perception?","volume":"30","author":"Pattamadilok","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2014.08.005","article-title":"Unattentive speech processing is influenced by orthographic knowledge: evidence from mismatch negativity","volume":"137","author":"Pattamadilok","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1017\/S0142716409090225","article-title":"The orthographic consistency effect in the recognition of French spoken words: an early developmental shift from sublexical to lexical orthographic activation","volume":"30","author":"Pattamadilok","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Psycholinguist."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1080\/01690960601049628","article-title":"The locus of the orthographic consistency effect in auditory word recognition: further evidence from French","volume":"22","author":"Pattamadilok","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lang. Cogn. Process."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1007\/s11881-013-0086-8","article-title":"How does reading performance modulate the impact of orthographic knowledge on speech processing? A comparison of normal readers and dyslexic adults","volume":"64","author":"Pattamadilok","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.3758\/PBR.16.2.363","article-title":"Orthographic influences in spoken word recognition: the consistency effect in semantic and gender categorization tasks","volume":"16","author":"Peereman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.1037\/xlm0000520","article-title":"Orthographic effects in second-language spoken-word recognition","volume":"44","author":"Qu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Learn. Mem."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-016-1164-9","article-title":"Orthographic effects in spoken word recognition: evidence from Chinese","volume":"24","author":"Qu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-018-9884-z","article-title":"Error patterns in word reading and spelling in Persian: is spelling more difficult than reading?","volume":"32","author":"Rahbari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Read. Writ."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-008-9122-1","article-title":"Lexical and nonlexical processes in the skilled reading and spelling of Persian","volume":"22","author":"Rahbari","year":"2008","journal-title":"Read. Writ."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1514","DOI":"10.1037\/a0020377","article-title":"Learning to read and spell in Persian: a cross-sectional study from grades 1 to 4","volume":"46","author":"Rahbari","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Learn. Mem."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1588","DOI":"10.1037\/a0024833","article-title":"Orthography influences the perception and production of speech","volume":"37","author":"Rastle","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Learn. Mem."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1614","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-015-0835-2","article-title":"Getting to the bottom of orthographic depth","volume":"22","author":"Schmalz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.5.6.546","article-title":"Orthographic effects on rhyme monitoring","volume":"5","author":"Seidenberg","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Learn. Mem."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5371(84)90270-6","article-title":"When does irregular spelling or pronunciation influence word recognition?","volume":"23","author":"Seidenberg","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Verbal Learn. Verbal Behav."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1006\/jmla.1996.2487","article-title":"Perception is a two-way street: feedforward and feedback phonology in visual word recognition","volume":"36","author":"Stone","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Mem. Lang."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"864","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728912000600","article-title":"Proficiency modulates early orthographic and phonological processing in L2 spoken word recognition","volume":"16","author":"Veivo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bilingualism Lang. Cognit."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2008.01.003","article-title":"The developmental turnpoint of orthographic consistency effects in speech recognition","volume":"100","author":"Ventura","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2006.12.005","article-title":"The development of the orthographic consistency effect in speech recognition: from sublexical to lexical involvement","volume":"105","author":"Ventura","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1080\/01690960344000134","article-title":"The locus of the orthographic consistency effect in auditory word recognition","volume":"19","author":"Ventura","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lang. Cogn. Process."},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03208845","article-title":"Orthography shapes the perception of speech: the consistency effect in auditory word recognition","volume":"5","author":"Ziegler","year":"1998","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03195863","article-title":"Visual phonology: the effects of orthographic consistency on different auditory word recognition tasks","volume":"32","author":"Ziegler","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-596X(03)00006-8","article-title":"Neighborhood effects in auditory word recognition: phonological competition and orthographic facilitation","volume":"48","author":"Ziegler","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Mem. Lang."},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.34.3.643","article-title":"Feedback consistency effects in visual and auditory word recognition: where do we stand after more than a decade?","volume":"34","author":"Ziegler","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cognit."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.691989\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]],"date-time":"2021-07-27T09:13:44Z","timestamp":1627377224000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.691989\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]]},"references-count":49,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.691989"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.691989","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]]},"article-number":"691989"}}