{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T12:33:24Z","timestamp":1774355604420,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":83,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,12]],"date-time":"2021-08-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1628726400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009497","name":"University of Texas at Arlington","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009497","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Inhibitory control (IC) is defined as the executive functioning (EF) and self-regulatory temperamental inhibition of impulsive or pre-potent behavior and has been consistently linked to multiple forms of childhood cognitive and socio-emotional maladjustment including academic and learning challenges, externalizing behaviors, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. However, the results of relevant investigations are somewhat dependent on the method of IC assessment and the theoretical approach of the researcher. The two primary theoretical perspectives on IC are the temperament and the EF approaches, and although there is considerable overlap between these perspectives, there are some distinctions with regard to assessment and emphases on cognition vs. emotion. Therefore, investigations including both temperament and EF approaches to IC are of considerable interest and will best inform future education, prevention, and intervention efforts. This investigation examined associations between child IC, working memory (WM), receptive vocabulary, externalizing behavioral problems, and primary caregiver depression and anxiety symptoms using a family study design. The sample was composed of 99 families with two typically developing preschool children (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic> = 198; 2.5\u20135.5 years old; <jats:italic>M<\/jats:italic> = 3.88, <jats:italic>SD<\/jats:italic> = 1.04) and one primary caregiver\/parent. Child IC was assessed using a multi-method approach consisting of one parent-rated questionnaire, three independent observer rating subscales, two videotaped in-person laboratory temperament episodes, and an EF Stroop task. Child WM and receptive vocabulary were measured in the laboratory using standard assessment techniques, and the remaining measures were parent-reported. Male child participants had significantly higher levels of observer-rated hyperactivity and impulsivity, and females had higher levels of observer-rated attention and Stroop-assessed IC. Correlational results showed that excepting IC-Stroop and a snack delay task, all IC measures were significantly correlated. All IC measures except snack delay were positively correlated with WM, and with receptive vocabulary (except Lab-TAB snack delay and observer-rated hyperactivity), and WM and receptive vocabulary were also positively correlated. All IC variables, WM, and receptive vocabulary were significantly related to externalizing behavior problems. Generally, children with higher IC, WM, and receptive vocabulary had lower levels of behavioral maladjustment. Lower parent-rated IC and higher levels of externalizing behavior problems were positively associated with maternal depression and anxiety (lower receptive vocabulary level was related to depression only). Employing structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses, we further examined the interrelationships among IC temperament variables, IC-Stroop, WM, and receptive vocabulary, controlling for age, gender, externalizing behaviors, maternal depression and anxiety, and the parent-rater variance (the multi-method effect). The results of our hypothesized model showed that the IC Temperament factor, composed of the six temperament IC measures, showed a positive effect on receptive vocabulary, while the IC-Stroop positively predicted WM. The IC Temperament factor and IC-Stroop were positively correlated with each other, and the IC Temperament factor, IC-Stroop, WM, and receptive vocabulary were positively related to age. The IC Temperament factor was also associated with fewer externalizing behavior problems, maternal depression had a negative effect on receptive vocabulary, and females showed lower levels of WM and receptive vocabulary than males. Overall, the IC Temperament factor and other covariates together accounted for 22.5% of the variance in vocabulary, whereas IC-Stroop and other controlled variables could explain 49.8% of the variance in WM. These findings indicate that theoretical perspectives (in this case temperament and EF IC contexts) and the different types of assessments used are crucial considerations when interpreting the results of studies of early childhood IC. Although most assessments of IC were associated with the outcomes under study, we found specific associations between temperament measures of IC and receptive vocabulary as well as externalizing, and IC-Stroop and WM. In addition, maternal depression had an effect on receptive vocabulary, emphasizing the developmental importance of family environment in preschool. These findings are relevant to the field of child development because they address several important questions about child EF and self-regulation. 1. Do temperament and EF conceptions of IC differentially predict outcomes? 2. How does the way we measure IC from the EF and self-regulation\/temperament perspectives impact our conceptualizations of these important constructs? 3. How can we reconcile the various ways different disciplines define IC and their independence\/overlap? 4. How can multi-method and multi-disciplinary perspectives and data collection approaches be combined to better understand both the temperament and EF conceptions of IC? Future studies with this sample will employ this multi-theoretical and multi-method approach on assessment in preschool to predict temperament, EF, and behavioral and academic adjustment in elementary school longitudinally.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.703606","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,12]],"date-time":"2021-08-12T06:15:39Z","timestamp":1628748939000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["A Multi-Theoretical and Multi-Method Family Study Approach to Preschool Inhibitory Control: Links to Working Memory, Receptive Vocabulary, Behavioral Maladjustment, and Parent Mental Health in the Context of Temperament and Executive Functioning Perspectives"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Jeffrey R.","family":"Gagne","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kaelyn","family":"Barker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chi-Ning","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ogechi K.","family":"Nwadinobi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Oi-Man","family":"Kwok","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","volume-title":"Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist and Revised Behavior Profile.","author":"Achenbach","year":"1983"},{"key":"ref2","volume-title":"Manual for the ASEBA Preschool Forms & Profiles: An Integrated System of Multi-Informant Assessment; Child Behavior Checklist for Ages 1 1\/2-5; Language Development Survey; Caregiver-Teacher Report Form.","author":"Achenbach","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1037\/0894-4105.8.4.485","article-title":"Developments in the concept of working memory","volume":"8","author":"Baddeley","year":"1994","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1673","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.158.10.1673","article-title":"Further evidence of association between behavioral inhibition and social anxiety in children","volume":"158","author":"Biederman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatr."},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.57.2.111","article-title":"School readiness: integrating cognition and emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of children\u2019s functioning at school entry","volume":"57","author":"Blair","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref6","volume-title":"Self-Regulation in Early Childhood: Nature and Nurture.","author":"Bronson","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.96.1.31","article-title":"Children\u2019s reading comprehension ability: concurrent prediction by working memory, verbal ability, and component skills","volume":"96","author":"Cain","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.55.090902.141913","article-title":"Personality development: stability and change","volume":"56","author":"Caspi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1177\/0165025406066759","article-title":"Theory of mind and inhibitory control in three cultures: conflict inhibition predicts false belief understanding in Germany, Costa Rica and Cameroon","volume":"30","author":"Chasiotis","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Dev."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.99.2.311","article-title":"Testing and refining the direct and inferential mediation model of reading comprehension","volume":"99","author":"Cromley","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-113011-143750","article-title":"Executive functions","volume":"64","author":"Diamond","year":"2013","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref13","volume-title":"Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test.","author":"Dunn","year":"2007"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1080\/713683036","article-title":"Fussy child\u2014difficult parenthood? Comparisons between families with a \u201cdepressed\u201d mother and non-depressed mother 2 months postpartum","volume":"18","author":"Edhborg","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Reprod. Infant Psychol."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1112","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8624.00337","article-title":"The relations of regulation and emotionality to children\u2019s externalizing and internalizing problem behavior","volume":"72","author":"Eisenberg","year":"2001","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2004.00652.x","article-title":"The relations of effortful control and impulsivity to children\u2019s resiliency and adjustment","volume":"75","author":"Eisenberg","year":"2004","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2005.00897.x","article-title":"Relations among positive parenting, children\u2019s effortful control, and externalizing problems: A three-wave longitudinal study","volume":"76","author":"Eisenberg","year":"2005","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref18","first-page":"145","article-title":"Executive attention, working memory capacity, and a two-factor theory of cognitive control","volume-title":"The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory.","author":"Engle","year":"2004"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1348\/026151008X397189","article-title":"Listening comprehension in preschoolers: The role of memory","volume":"27","author":"Florit","year":"2009","journal-title":"Br. J. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1111\/cdep.12223","article-title":"Self-control in childhood: A synthesis of perspectives and focus on early development","volume":"11","author":"Gagne","year":"2017","journal-title":"Child Dev. Perspect."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2115","DOI":"10.1002\/icd.2115","article-title":"A multi-method study of inhibitory control and behavior problems in preschoolers","volume":"28","author":"Gagne","year":"2018","journal-title":"Infant Child Dev."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-7687.2010.00969.x","article-title":"A longitudinal analysis of anger and inhibitory control in twins from 12\u201336 months of age","volume":"14","author":"Gagne","year":"2011","journal-title":"Dev. Sci."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2013.02.006","article-title":"Early\u2014but modest\u2014gender differences in focal aspects of childhood temperament","volume":"55","author":"Gagne","year":"","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1007\/s10519-009-9316-6","article-title":"Wait for it! A twin study of inhibitory control in early childhood","volume":"40","author":"Gagne","year":"2010","journal-title":"Behav. Genet."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1037\/dev0000090","article-title":"The development of inhibitory control in early childhood: A twin study from 2-3 years","volume":"52","author":"Gagne","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2011.02420.x","article-title":"The genetic etiology of inhibitory control and behavior problems at 24 months of age","volume":"52","author":"Gagne","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1111\/jabr.12013","article-title":"Parent depression symptoms and child temperament outcomes: A family study approach","volume":"18","author":"Gagne","year":"","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biobehav. Res."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.134.1.31","article-title":"Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework","volume":"134","author":"Garon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.2307\/1131697","article-title":"Studying temperament via construction of the toddler behavior assessment questionnaire","volume":"67","author":"Goldsmith","year":"1996","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1037\/10684-002","article-title":"Temperament as a liability factor for childhood behavioral disorders: the concept of liability,","volume-title":"Behavior Genetics Principles: Perspectives in Development, Personality, and Psychopathology. Decade of Behavior","author":"Goldsmith","year":"2004"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2009.08040621","article-title":"Validation and extension of the endophenotype model in ADHD patterns of inheritance in a family study of inhibitory control","volume":"166","author":"Goos","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatr."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2014.06.008","article-title":"Gender differences in working memory networks: A BrainMap meta-analysis","volume":"102","author":"Hill","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-835X.1998.tb00921.x","article-title":"Executive function in preschoolers: links with theory of mind and verbal ability","volume":"16","author":"Hughes","year":"1998","journal-title":"Br. J. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1207\/s15326942dn2802_5","article-title":"Executive function and theory of mind in 2 year olds: a family affair?","volume":"28","author":"Hughes","year":"2005","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1447","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.43.6.1447","article-title":"Executive function and theory of mind: predictive relations from ages 2 to 4","volume":"43","author":"Hughes","year":"2007","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-007-9107-6","article-title":"Does executive function matter for preschoolers\u2019 problem behaviors?","volume":"36","author":"Hughes","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1594","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1467-8624.2003.00626.x","article-title":"Development of mental attention in gifted and mainstream children: The role of mental capacity, inhibition, and speed of processing","volume":"74","author":"Johnson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1080\/15248372.2020.1862120","article-title":"Self-regulation in preschool children: factor structure of different measures of effortful control and executive functions","volume":"22","author":"K\u00e4lin","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Dev."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.2307\/1131828","article-title":"Inhibitory control in young children and its role in emerging internalization","volume":"67","author":"Kochanska","year":"1996","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.43.3.602","article-title":"Using multilevel analyses with sibling data to increase analytic power: An illustration and simulation study","volume":"43","author":"Krull","year":"2007","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1044\/1092-4388(2013\/12-0227)","article-title":"Cognitive and linguistic sources of variance in 2-year-olds\u2019speech-sound discrimination: a preliminary investigation","volume":"57","author":"Lalonde","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1416","DOI":"10.1037\/edu0000342","article-title":"Inference making in young children: The concurrent and longitudinal contributions of verbal working memory and vocabulary","volume":"111","author":"Currie","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1007\/s10862-014-9424-3","article-title":"Executive function among preschool children: unitary versus distinct abilities","volume":"36","author":"Lerner","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Psychopathol. Behav. Assess."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecresq.2018.10.004","article-title":"Measurement of self-regulation in early childhood: relations between laboratory and performance-based measures of effortful control and executive functioning","volume":"47","author":"Lin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Early Child. Res. Q."},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1080\/02702710802165416","article-title":"The development of narrative comprehension and its relation to other early reading skills","volume":"29","author":"Lynch","year":"2008","journal-title":"Read. Psychol."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.43.4.947","article-title":"Links between behavioral regulation and preschoolers\u2019 literacy, vocabulary, and math skills","volume":"43","author":"McClelland","year":"2007","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.106.1.3","article-title":"A hot\/cool system analysis of delay of gratification: dynamics of willpower","volume":"106","author":"Metcalfe","year":"1999","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2017.11.004","article-title":"Which tasks measure what? Reflections on executive function development and a commentary on Podjarny, Kamawar, and Andrews (2017)","volume":"167","author":"Morra","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1019821031523","article-title":"Effortful control: factor structure and relation to externalizing and internalizing behaviors","volume":"30","author":"Murray","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref49","volume-title":"Mplus user\u2019s Guide: Statistical Analysis With Latent Variables, User\u2019s Guide.","author":"Muth\u00e9n","year":""},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022614407893","article-title":"A two-year longitudinal study of neuropsychological and cognitive performance in relation to behavioral problems and competencies in elementary school children","volume":"27","author":"Nigg","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1021915615677","article-title":"Measurement of impulsivity: construct coherence, longitudinal stability, and relationship with externalizing problems in middle childhood and adolescence","volume":"27","author":"Olson","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1080\/15248372.2019.1685525","article-title":"Executive functions and mental attentional capacity in preschoolers","volume":"21","author":"Panesi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Dev."},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1037\/0893-3200.20.4.648","article-title":"Depressive vulnerability in parents and their 5-year-old child\u2019s temperament: A family system perspective","volume":"20","author":"Pesonen","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Fam. Psychol."},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-9010.88.5.879","article-title":"Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies","volume":"88","author":"Podsakoff","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Psychol."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1177\/014662167700100306","article-title":"The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population","volume":"1","author":"Radloff","year":"1977","journal-title":"Appl. Psychol. Meas."},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appdev.2008.12.012","article-title":"The contribution of inhibitory control to preschoolers\u2019 social\u2013emotional competence","volume":"30","author":"Rhoades","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Appl. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1076\/chin.9.4.267.23513","article-title":"Concurrent and 2-year longitudinal relations between executive function and the behavior of 1st and 2nd grade children","volume":"9","author":"Riggs","year":"2003","journal-title":"Child Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref58","first-page":"187","article-title":"Temperament and development","volume-title":"Temperament in Childhood.","author":"Rothbart","year":"1989"},{"key":"ref59","first-page":"21","article-title":"Temperament and social behavior in childhood","volume":"40","author":"Rothbart","year":"1994","journal-title":"Merrill-Palmer Q."},{"key":"ref60","first-page":"99","article-title":"Temperament","volume-title":"Handbook of Child Psychology: Social, Emotional, and Personality Development.","author":"Rothbart","year":"2006"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/S0163-6383(02)00171-6","article-title":"Parent ratings of infant temperament: lessons from twin studies","volume":"26","author":"Saudino","year":"2003","journal-title":"Infant Behav. Dev."},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-843X.117.1.48","article-title":"The etiology of behavioral problems and competencies in very young twins","volume":"117","author":"Saudino","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Psychol."},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2018.12.005","article-title":"Predictive links among vocabulary, mathematical language, and executive functioning in preschoolers","volume":"180","author":"Schmitt","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1657","DOI":"10.1126\/science.283.5408.1657","article-title":"Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes","volume":"283","author":"Smith","year":"1999","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-015-0042-7","article-title":"Aggression in young siblings: associations with executive functions and maternal characteristics","volume":"44","author":"Spann","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref66","volume-title":"State\u2013Trait Anxiety Inventory: A Comprehensive Bibliography.","author":"Spielberger","year":"1989"},{"key":"ref67","volume-title":"State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.","author":"Spielberger","year":"1970"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1002\/icd.475","article-title":"Executive functioning deficits in relation to symptoms of ADHD and\/or ODD in preschool children","volume":"15","author":"Thorell","year":"2006","journal-title":"Infant Child Dev."},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e12918","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12918","article-title":"Common mechanisms of executive attention underlie executive function and effortful control in children","volume":"23","author":"Tiego","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dev. Sci."},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.114.1.104","article-title":"The nature of individual differences in working memory capacity: active maintenance in primary memory and controlled search in secondary memory","volume":"114","author":"Unsworth","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1765","DOI":"10.1037\/a0028075","article-title":"Everyday attention failures: An individual differences investigation","volume":"38","author":"Unsworth","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1962","DOI":"10.1037\/xlm0000421","article-title":"The importance of arousal for variation in working memory capacity and attention control: A latent variable pupillometry study","volume":"43","author":"Unsworth","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1080\/17405629.2013.840578","article-title":"Latent structure of executive function in five-and six-year-old children: A longitudinal study","volume":"11","author":"Usai","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref74","first-page":"275","article-title":"Relations of mothers\u2019 and fathers\u2019 reports of infant temperament, parents\u2019 psychological functioning, and family characteristics","volume":"32","author":"Ventura","year":"1986","journal-title":"Merrill-Palmer Q."},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appdev.2007.06.011","article-title":"Predicting the early developmental course of symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"28","author":"von Stauffenberg","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Appl. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12302","article-title":"Cumulative risk disparities in children\u2019s neurocognitive functioning: a developmental cascade model","volume":"19","author":"Wade","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dev. Sci."},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.44.2.575","article-title":"Using confirmatory factor analysis to understand executive control in preschool children: I. latent structure","volume":"44","author":"Wiebe","year":"2008","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2010.08.008","article-title":"The structure of executive function in 3-year-olds","volume":"108","author":"Wiebe","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2006.01.009","article-title":"The integration of cognition and emotion during infancy and early childhood: regulatory processes associated with the development of working memory","volume":"65","author":"Wolfe","year":"2007","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1080\/10705511.2012.634703","article-title":"Using SEM to analyze complex survey data: A comparison between design-based single-level and model-based multilevel approaches","volume":"19","author":"Wu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Struct. Equ. Model. Multidiscip. J."},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dr.2015.07.001","article-title":"Executive function: reflection, iterative reprocessing, complexity, and the developing brain","volume":"38","author":"Zelazo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Dev. Rev."},{"key":"ref82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0037-976X.2003.00266.x","article-title":"The development of executive function in early childhood: VI. The development of executive function: cognitive complexity and control--revised","volume":"68","author":"Zelazo","year":"2003","journal-title":"Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev."},{"key":"ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-8606.2011.00176.x","article-title":"Commonalities and differences in the research on children\u2019s effortful control and executive function: A call for an integrated model of self-regulation","volume":"6","author":"Zhou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Child Dev. Perspect."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.703606\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,12]],"date-time":"2021-08-12T06:15:53Z","timestamp":1628748953000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.703606\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,12]]},"references-count":83,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.703606"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.703606","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,12]]},"article-number":"703606"}}