{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T01:29:47Z","timestamp":1792632587608,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,10]],"date-time":"2022-03-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1646870400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Coach education is a learner-centred process, which often fails to consider the preferences of the consumer. Historically, research into performers\u2019 experiences of coaching have been influenced by the social constructivism of learning: in short, an expressed preference for what the performer has experienced as determined by their coach, rather than their own personal preferences. Therefore, this research used skateboarding as a natural laboratory in order to explore the current practices and preferences of performers in a coach-free environment. Ninety-one skateboarders from parks in the United Kingdom and New Zealand offered information relating to their current learning practices, how they learnt about learning, and how the top-level performers in their environment were differentiated. Findings suggest that a number of learning tools are used by performers, which are closely aligned with a more traditional, cognitive view of coaching (e.g., demonstration, drills, and error usage). Results also suggest that performers deployed a number of cognitive skills (e.g., imagery, analogy, and understanding) to enhance storage of a movement as an internal representation. Finally, in the absence of formal coaching, performers use their knowledge of learning to appoint informal leaders. Implications for practice are discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.812068","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,10]],"date-time":"2022-03-10T16:55:42Z","timestamp":1646931342000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Show Me, Tell Me: An Investigation Into Learning Processes Within Skateboarding as an Informal Coaching Environment"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Rosie","family":"Collins","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dave","family":"Collins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Howie J.","family":"Carson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1093\/poq\/nfm006","article-title":"Research synthesis: the practice of cognitive interviewing.","volume":"71","author":"Beatty","year":"2007","journal-title":"Public Opin. Q."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1260\/1747-9541.4.1.93","article-title":"It\u2019s not what they do, it\u2019s how they do it: athlete experiences of great coaching.","volume":"4","author":"Becker","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach."},{"key":"B3","author":"Bernstein","year":"1967","journal-title":"The Co-Ordination and Regulation of Movements."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2019.04.016","article-title":"The acute effects of analogy and explicit instruction on movement and performance.","volume":"44","author":"Bobrownicki","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychol. Sport Exerc."},{"key":"B5","author":"Bompa","year":"1983","journal-title":"Theory and Methodology of Training: The Key to Athletic Performance."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1080\/2159676X.2019.1628806","article-title":"Reflecting on reflexive thematic analysis.","volume":"11","author":"Braun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Qual. Res. Sport"},{"key":"B7","first-page":"843","article-title":"Thematic analysis","author":"Braun","year":"2018","journal-title":"Handbook of Research Methods in Health and Social Sciences"},{"key":"B8","first-page":"191","article-title":"Using thematic analysis in sport and exercise research","author":"Braun","year":"2016","journal-title":"International Handbook on Qualitative Research in Sport and Exercise"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1905","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2006.07.065","article-title":"Seeing or doing? Influence of visual and motor familiarity in action observation.","volume":"16","author":"Calvo-Merino","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1080\/1750984x.2011.613682","article-title":"Refining and regaining skills in fixation\/diversification stage performers: the Five-A Model.","volume":"4","author":"Carson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Sport Exerc. Psychol."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1080\/02602938.2010.484879","article-title":"Student perception of teaching effectiveness: development and validation of the Evaluation of Teaching Competencies Scale (ETCS).","volume":"36","author":"Catano","year":"2011","journal-title":"Assess. Eval. High. Educ."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1947","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-5583-7_311","article-title":"Thematic analysis,","author":"Clarke","year":"2014","journal-title":"Encyclopedia of Critical Psychology"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1288","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2015.1098782","article-title":"Letter to the editor concerning the article \u201cPerformance of gymnastics skill benefits from an external focus of attention\u201d by Abdollahipour, Wulf, Psotta & Nieto (2015).","volume":"34","author":"Collins","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.01652","article-title":"Periodisation and self-regulation in action sports: coping with the emotional load.","volume":"9","author":"Collins","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14729679.2021.1902829","article-title":"Proposing a new conceptualisation for modern sport based on environmental and regulatory constraints: implications for research, coach education and professional practice.","author":"Collins","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Adventure Educ. Outdoor"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1165","DOI":"10.1080\/17430437.2018.1504776","article-title":"Para-adventure: a hyper-dynamic problem for the inclusive coach.","volume":"22","author":"Collins","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sport Soc."},{"key":"B17","author":"Collins","year":"2021","journal-title":"It Really Does Depend: An Exploration into the Dichotomous Positions Held Across the Psycho-Motoric Concomitants to High-Level Performance."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/1612197X.2021.1907768","article-title":"Muscular collision chess: a qualitative exploration of the role and development of cognition, understanding and knowledge in elite-level decision making.","author":"Collins","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1260\/174795409789623892","article-title":"An integrative definition of coaching effectiveness and expertise.","volume":"4","author":"C\u00f4t\u00e9","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1260\/174795408784089441","article-title":"Clarifying the concept of communities of practice in sport.","volume":"3","author":"Culver","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1051\/sm\/2013098","article-title":"Introducing the revised applied model of deliberate imagery use for sport, dance, exercise and rehabilitation.","volume":"82","author":"Cumming","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"B22","first-page":"243","article-title":"Coach behaviour","author":"Cushion","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sports Coaching Professionalization and Practice"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1080\/21640629.2020.1866851","article-title":"Less may be more: how do coach developers reproduce \u201clearner-centred\u201d policy in practice?","volume":"10","author":"Dempsey","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sports Coach. Rev."},{"key":"B24","author":"Denscombe","year":"2007","journal-title":"The Good Research Guide: For Small-Scale Social Research Projects."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1177\/1077800416681864","article-title":"Critical qualitative inquiry.","volume":"23","author":"Denzin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Qual. Inq."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1177\/1356336X19851535","article-title":"Learning in action sports: a scoping review.","volume":"26","author":"Ellmer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Phys. Educ."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2007.12.003ff","article-title":"Content, characteristics and function of mental images.","volume":"9","author":"Fournier","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychol. Sport Exerc."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socnet.2015.04.003","article-title":"Who takes the lead? Social network analysis as a pioneering tool to investigate shared leadership within sports team.","volume":"43","author":"Fransen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Soc. Netw."},{"key":"B29","year":"2020","journal-title":"Finding True North."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1260\/1747-9541.6.4.567","article-title":"Challenges and solutions when applying implicit motor learning theory in a high performance sport environment: examples from rugby league.","volume":"6","author":"Gabbett","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.3200\/JMBR.36.2.212-224","article-title":"Challenge point: a framework for conceptualizing the effects of various practice conditions in motor learning.","volume":"36","author":"Guadagnoli","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Mot. Behav."},{"key":"B32","first-page":"7","article-title":"Practical Considerations for Implementing Research Recruitment Etiquette.","volume":"36","author":"Gyure","year":"2014","journal-title":"IRB"},{"key":"B33","first-page":"73","article-title":"Imagery use by athletes: development of the sport imagery questionnaire.","volume":"29","author":"Hall","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Psychol."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1123\/tsp.16.1.79","article-title":"Rapid technique correction using old way\/new way: two case studies with Olympic athletes.","volume":"16","author":"Hanin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Sport Psychol."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1123\/jsp.6.1.42","article-title":"Cognitive processes during self-paced motor performance: an electroencephalographic profile of skills marksmen.","volume":"6","author":"Hatfield","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Sport Psychol."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1080\/87567550109595842","article-title":"Understanding student evaluations: what all faculty should know.","volume":"49","author":"Hobson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Coll. Teach."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2021.2015917","article-title":"An extended challenge-based framework for practice design in sports coaching.","author":"Hodges","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1177\/1354856517735840","article-title":"Symbiotic learning partnerships in youth action sports: vibing, rhythm, and analytic cycles.","volume":"25","author":"Hollett","year":"2019","journal-title":"Convergence"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2009.12.005","article-title":"Self-efficacy as a metaperception within coach-athlete and athlete-athlete relationships.","volume":"11","author":"Jackson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychol. Sport Exerc."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1080\/13573322.2011.601139","article-title":"Sport and re\/creation: what skateboarders can teach us about learning.","volume":"16","author":"Jones","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sport Educ. Soc."},{"key":"B41","author":"Kelso","year":"1995","journal-title":"Dynamic Patterns: The Self-Organization of Brain and Behavior."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2015.08.012","article-title":"Repetition and variation in motor practice: a review of neural correlates.","volume":"57","author":"Lage","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1080\/13573322.2015.1015977","article-title":"Positive Pedagogy for sport coaching.","volume":"22","author":"Light","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sport Educ. Soc."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1080\/02640410152475856","article-title":"Pre-shot alpha power reactivity during expert air-pistol shooting: a comparison of best and worst shots.","volume":"19","author":"Loze","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/S1469-0292(02)00043-2","article-title":"Elite athletes: why does the \u2018fire\u2019 burn so brightly?","volume":"5","author":"Mallett","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychol. Sport Exerc."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1260\/174795409789623883","article-title":"Formal vs. informal coach education.","volume":"4","author":"Mallett","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1002\/asi.23204","article-title":"Information seeking, use, and decision making.","volume":"66","author":"Mishra","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Assoc. Inf."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-015-9312-8","article-title":"When is it better to learn together? Insights from research on collaborative learning.","volume":"27","author":"Nokes-Malach","year":"2015","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1177\/1356336X13496002","article-title":"Exploring \u201cknowings\u201d in human movement: the practical knowledged of pole-vaulters.","volume":"20","author":"Nyberg","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. Phys. Educ. Rev."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1080\/1612197X.2020.1766536","article-title":"Using a \u201cthink aloud\u201d protocol to understand meta-attention in club-level golfers.","volume":"19","author":"Oliver","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1123\/iscj.2017-0038","article-title":"The evolution and learner-centered status of a coach education program.","volume":"5","author":"Paquette","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Sport Coach. J."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1177\/1741143207078180","article-title":"Self-evaluation and Ofsted inspection: developing an integrative model of school improvement.","volume":"35","author":"Plowright","year":"2007","journal-title":"Educ. Manag."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2005.06.006","article-title":"The relationship between initial errorless training programs and subsequent performance.","volume":"24","author":"Poolton","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1260\/174795407780367177","article-title":"So you want to learn implicitly? Coaching and learning through implicit motor learning techniques.","volume":"2","author":"Poolton","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1080\/00336297.2000.10491709","article-title":"Toward an holistic understanding of the coaching process.","volume":"52","author":"Potrac","year":"2000","journal-title":"Quest"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1917","DOI":"10.1111\/sms.13534","article-title":"The effect of action observation and motor imagery combinations on upper limb kinematics and EMG during dart throwing.","volume":"29","author":"Romano-Smith","year":"2019","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1080\/10413200.2014.954065","article-title":"Coaches\u2019 bases of power: developing some initial knowledge of athletes\u2019 compliance with coaches in team sports.","volume":"27","author":"Rylander","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Sport"},{"key":"B58","first-page":"62","article-title":"Psychological factors of technical preparation","author":"Schack","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychology of Sport Training"},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00328","article-title":"Mental representation and motor imagery.","volume":"8","author":"Schack","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2005.10.009","article-title":"Representation of motor skills in human long-term memory.","volume":"391","author":"Schack","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1007\/s002210050738","article-title":"The uncontrolled manifold concept: identifying control variables for a functional task.","volume":"126","author":"Scholz","year":"1999","journal-title":"Exp. Brain. Res."},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2364","DOI":"10.1111\/cogs.12668","article-title":"How do creative experts practice new skills? Exploratory practice in breakdancers.","volume":"42","author":"Shimizu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1177\/1350507618762600","article-title":"Coaching as a social process.","volume":"49","author":"Shoukry","year":"2018","journal-title":"Manag. Learn."},{"key":"B64","year":"2020","journal-title":"Design and Development Guidance for Skateboarding."},{"key":"B65","first-page":"103","article-title":"Imagery perspectives and Karate performance.","volume":"16","author":"Smith","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2015.1072279","article-title":"Sources, topics and use of knowledge by coaches.","volume":"34","author":"Stoszkowski","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1123\/iscj.2019-0066","article-title":"\u201cOpinion and fact, perspective and truth\u201d: seeking truthfulness and integrity in coaching and coach education.","volume":"8","author":"Stoszkowski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Sport Coach. J."},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1177\/1747954117694926","article-title":"Sibling interaction as a facilitator for talent development in sport.","volume":"12","author":"Taylor","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach."},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00132290","article-title":"Improving the quality of student learning: the influence of learning context and student approaches to learning on learning outcomes.","volume":"22","author":"Trigwell","year":"1991","journal-title":"High. Educ."},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1080\/25742981.2018.1555003","article-title":"Vygotsky and sports coaching: non-linear practice in youth and adult settings.","volume":"10","author":"Vinson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curric. Stud. Health Phys. Educ."},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1080\/02640410400021328","article-title":"Practice, instruction and skill acquisition in soccer: challenging tradition.","volume":"23","author":"Williams","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1123\/iscj.2016-0003","article-title":"A retrospective analysis of trick progression in elite freeskiing and snowboarding.","volume":"4","author":"Willmott","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Sport Coach. J."},{"key":"B73","first-page":"320","article-title":"Applied coaching science","author":"Winkelman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Advanced Strength and Conditioning"},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1293","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2015.1136746","article-title":"An external focus of attention is a conditio sine qua non for athletes: a response to Carson, Collins, and Toner (2015).","volume":"34","author":"Wulf","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.812068\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,10]],"date-time":"2022-03-10T16:55:57Z","timestamp":1646931357000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.812068\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,10]]},"references-count":74,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.812068"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.812068","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,10]]},"article-number":"812068"}}