{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T23:07:43Z","timestamp":1787699263110,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":149,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,29]],"date-time":"2022-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1664409600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper summarizes a theory of cognitive development and elaborates on its educational implications. The theory postulates that development occurs in cycles along multiple fronts. Cognitive competence in each cycle comprises a different profile of executive, inferential, and awareness processes, reflecting changes in developmental priorities in each cycle. Changes reflect varying needs in representing, understanding, and interacting with the world. Interaction control dominates episodic representation in infancy; attention control and perceptual awareness dominate in realistic representations in preschool; inferential control and awareness dominate rule-based representation in primary school; truth and validity control and precise self-evaluation dominate in principle-based thought in adolescence. We demonstrate that the best predictors of school learning in each cycle are the cycle\u2019s cognitive priorities. Also learning in different domains, e.g., language and mathematics, depends on an interaction between the general cognitive processes dominating in each cycle and the state of the representational systems associated with each domain. When a representational system is deficient, specific learning difficulties may emerge, e.g., dyslexia and dyscalculia. We also discuss the educational implications for evaluation and learning at school.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.954971","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,29]],"date-time":"2022-09-29T12:02:31Z","timestamp":1664452951000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Changing priorities in the development of cognitive competence and school learning: A general theory"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Andreas","family":"Demetriou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George Charilaos","family":"Spanoudis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samuel","family":"Greiff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nikolaos","family":"Makris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rita","family":"Panaoura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Smaragda","family":"Kazi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","volume-title":"Psychological testing","author":"Anastasi","year":"1997"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1037\/rev0000369","article-title":"Play in predictive minds: a cognitive theory of play","volume-title":"Psychol. Rev.","author":"Andersen","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogpsych.2014.06.002","article-title":"Extending problem-solving procedures through reflection","volume":"74","author":"Anderson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03173029","article-title":"Metacognitive knowledge in primary grades: a longitudinal study","volume":"16","author":"Annevirta","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eur. J. Psychol. Educ."},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijer.2019.06.011","article-title":"Multi-factorial approach to early numeracy\u2014the effects of cognitive skills, language factors and kindergarten attendance on early numeracy performance of south African first graders","volume":"97","author":"Aunio","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2013.06.005","article-title":"Young children\u2019s numerical judgment of arrays, numberwords, and digits","volume":"129","author":"Benoit","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797618822524","article-title":"Psychological constellations assessed at age 13 predict distinct forms of eminence 35 years later","volume":"30","author":"Bernstein","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1037\/11069-002","article-title":"New methods for the diagnosis of the intellectual level of subnormals. (L' Ann\u00e9e psych., 1905, pp. 191-244)","volume-title":"The Development of Intelligence in Children (The Binet-Simon Scale)","author":"Binet","year":"1916"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cedpsych.2012.07.001","article-title":"Fractions: could they really be the gatekeeper\u2019s doorman?","volume":"37","author":"Booth","year":"2012","journal-title":"Contemp. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref10","volume-title":"Beyond the Information Given: Studies in the Psychology of Knowing","author":"Bruner","year":"1973"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2012.05.006","article-title":"A unitary executive function predicts intelligence in children","volume":"40","author":"Brydges","year":"2012","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref12","first-page":"455","article-title":"Developmental dyscalculia","volume-title":"Handbook Of Mathematical Cognition","author":"Butterworth","year":"2005"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2010.09.007","article-title":"Foundational numerical capacities and the origins of dyscalculia","volume":"14","author":"Butterworth","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref14","first-page":"61","article-title":"Early childhood interventions: the abecedarian project","volume-title":"Extending Intelligence: Enhancement and New Constructs","author":"Campbell","year":"2008"},{"key":"ref15","volume-title":"Conceptual Change in Childhood","author":"Carey","year":"1985"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195367638.001.0001","volume-title":"The Origin of Concepts","author":"Carey","year":"2009"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511571312","volume-title":"Human Cognitive Abilities: A Survey of Factor-Analytic Studies","author":"Carroll","year":"1993"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/0160-2896(84)90007-2","article-title":"Psychometric and Piagetian intelligences: toward resolution of controversy","volume":"8","author":"Carroll","year":"1984","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref19","volume-title":"Intellectual Development. Birth to Adulthood","author":"Case","year":"1985"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/S0160-2896(00)00057-X","article-title":"Integrating concepts and tests of intelligence from the differential and developmental traditions","volume":"29","author":"Case","year":"2001","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1044\/0161-1461(2001\/004)","article-title":"Estimating the risk of future reading difficulties in kindergarten children","volume":"32","author":"Catts","year":"2001","journal-title":"Lang. Speech Hear. Serv. Sch."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.27.5.703","article-title":"How much does schooling influence general intelligence and its cognitive components?","volume":"27","author":"Ceci","year":"1991","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.52.10.1051","article-title":"Schooling, intelligence, and income","volume":"52","author":"Ceci","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1856","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12557","article-title":"Coping with logical fallacies: a developmental training program for learning to reason","volume":"87","author":"Christoforides","year":"2016","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219409345018","article-title":"Second language learning difficulties in Chinese children with dyslexia: what are the reading-related cognitive skills that contribute to English and Chinese word reading?","volume":"43","author":"Chung","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Learn. Disabil."},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1176","DOI":"10.1037\/a0019672","article-title":"Preschool executive functioning abilities predict early mathematics achievement","volume":"46","author":"Clark","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2015.08.005","article-title":"Relations among general intelligence (g), aptitude tests, and GPA: linear effects dominate","volume":"53","author":"Coyle","year":"2015","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref28","volume-title":"Reading in the Brain: The New Science of How We Read","author":"Dehaene","year":"2010"},{"key":"ref29","volume-title":"The Number Sense","author":"Dehaene","year":"2011"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8624.00148","article-title":"Dual representation and young children\u2019s use of scale models","volume":"71","author":"DeLoache","year":"2000","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.17811\/rifie.49.3.2020.217-224","article-title":"A developmental theory of instruction: bridging educational priorities with developmental priorities","volume":"49","author":"Demetriou","year":"","journal-title":"Aula Abierta"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S7","DOI":"10.1017\/S1062798720000873","article-title":"Bridging the 21st century gap in education: history, causation, and solutions","volume":"28","author":"Demetriou","year":"","journal-title":"Eur. Rev."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/1540-5834.671174","article-title":"The development of mental processing: efficiency, working memory, and thinking","volume":"67","author":"Demetriou","year":"2002","journal-title":"Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev."},{"key":"ref34","first-page":"371","article-title":"The person's conception of the structures of developing intellect: early adolescence to middle age","volume":"115","author":"Demetriou","year":"1989","journal-title":"Genet. Soc. Gen. Psychol. Monogr."},{"key":"ref35","first-page":"1","article-title":"The architecture and dynamics of developing mind","volume":"58","author":"Demetriou","year":"1993","journal-title":"SRCD Monograph"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2021.101562","article-title":"The future of intelligence: the central meaning-making unit of intelligence in the mind, the brain, and artificial intelligence","volume":"87","author":"Demetriou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100872","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogdev.2020.100872","article-title":"Cognition and cognizance in preschool predict school achievement in primary school","volume":"54","author":"Demetriou","year":"","journal-title":"Cogn. Dev."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2019.101381","article-title":"Predicting school performance from cognitive ability, self-representation, and personality from primary school to senior high school","volume":"76","author":"Demetriou","year":"","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2020.101432","article-title":"Cognitive ability, cognitive self-awareness, and school performance: from childhood to adolescence","volume":"79","author":"Demetriou","year":"","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1348\/000709905X43256","article-title":"The functional and developmental organization of cognitive developmental sequences","volume":"76","author":"Demetriou","year":"2006","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1461","DOI":"10.1002\/wcs.1461","article-title":"The developmental trinity of mind: cognizance, executive control, and reasoning","volume":"9","author":"Demetriou","year":"","journal-title":"WIREs Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1159\/000484450","article-title":"Mapping the dimensions of general intelligence: an integrated differential-developmental theory","volume":"61","author":"Demetriou","year":"","journal-title":"Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101404","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2019.101404","article-title":"Decomposing the influence of mental processes on academic performance","volume":"77","author":"Demetriou","year":"","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101602","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2021.101602","article-title":"Changing developmental priorities between executive functions, working memory, and reasoning in the formation of g from 6 to 12 years","volume":"90","author":"Demetriou","year":"","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref45","first-page":"255","article-title":"Universals and specificities in the structure and of quantitative-relational thought: a cross-cultural study in Greece and India","volume":"19","author":"Demetriou","year":"1996","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Dev."},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315537375","volume-title":"Growing Minds: A General Theory of Intelligence and Learning","author":"Demetriou","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence5020023","article-title":"Developmental differentiation and binding of mental processes with re-morphing g through the lifespan","volume":"5","author":"Demetriou","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Intellig."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/f9sd2","article-title":"Cognitive and personality predictors of school performance from preschool to secondary school: an overarching model","volume-title":"Psychol. Rev.","author":"Demetriou","year":""},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2012.10.010","article-title":"Cycles in speed-working memory-G relations: towards a developmental\u2013differential theory of the mind","volume":"41","author":"Demetriou","year":"2013","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2014.05.013","article-title":"Relations between speed, working memory, and intelligence from preschool to adulthood: structural equation modeling of 14 studies","volume":"46","author":"Demetriou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.3390\/jintelligence6040051","article-title":"Mind-personality relations from childhood to early adulthood","volume":"6","author":"Demetriou","year":"","journal-title":"J. Intellig."},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1037\/a0038749","article-title":"The development of categorization: effects of classification and inference training on category representation","volume":"51","author":"Deng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.edurev.2008.02.003","article-title":"How can primary school students learn self-regulated learning strategies most effectively? A meta-analysis on self-regulation training programmes","volume":"3","author":"Digmath","year":"2008","journal-title":"Educ. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adolescence.2020.03.001","article-title":"Relationship between interference control and working memory with academic performance in high school students: the adolescent student academic performance longitudinal study (ASAP)","volume":"80","author":"Dubuk","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Adolesc."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1207\/s15326942dn2601_6","article-title":"The contribution of executive functions to emergent mathematic skills in preschool children","volume":"26","author":"Espy","year":"2002","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1177\/0142723705051980","article-title":"The emergence of phonological awareness: connections to language and theory of mind development","volume":"25","author":"Farrar","year":"2005","journal-title":"First Lang."},{"key":"ref57","volume-title":"What is Intelligence: Beyond the Flynn Effect","author":"Flynn","year":"2009"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2012.03.013","article-title":"A causal link between visual spatial attention and reading acquisition","volume":"22","author":"Franceschini","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref59","volume-title":"Complex Problem Solving: The European Perspective","author":"Frensch","year":"1995"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-8545-7_6","article-title":"Types of developmental dyslexia in Arabic","volume-title":"Handbook of Arabic Literacy, Literacy Studies","author":"Friedmann","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1177\/0040059914522966","article-title":"What is intensive instruction and why is it important?","volume":"46","author":"Fuchs","year":"2014","journal-title":"Teach. Except. Child."},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lindif.2014.07.013","article-title":"Executive processes, reading comprehension and academic achievement in 3th grade primary students","volume":"35","author":"Garc\u00eda-Madruga","year":"2014","journal-title":"Learn. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674037533","volume-title":"The Child\u2019s Understanding of Number","author":"Gelman","year":"1986"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1111\/tops.12278","article-title":"Analogy and abstraction","volume":"9","author":"Gentner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Top. Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1080\/20445911.2017.1310110","article-title":"The relationship between intelligence, working memory, academic self-esteem, and academic achievement","volume":"29","author":"Giofr\u00e8","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/S0160-2896(97)90014-3","article-title":"Why g matters: the complexity of everyday life","volume":"24","author":"Gottfredson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref67","first-page":"37","article-title":"Schooling and intelligence: effects of track of study on level and profile of cognitive abilities","volume-title":"Extending Intelligence: Enhancement and New Constructs","author":"Gustafsson","year":"2008"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327906mbr2804_2","article-title":"General and specific abilities as predictors of school achievement","volume":"28","author":"Gustafsson","year":"1993","journal-title":"Multivar. Behav. Res."},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6829","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0801268105","article-title":"Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory","volume":"105","author":"Jaeggi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"ref70","volume-title":"The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability","author":"Jensen","year":"1998"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219416662033","article-title":"Delaware longitudinal study of fraction learning: implications for helping children with mathematics difficulties","volume":"50","author":"Jordan","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Learn. Disabil."},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-4405(99)00036-9","article-title":"Speed of information processing: developmental change and links to intelligence","volume":"38","author":"Kail","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Sch. Psychol."},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2012.01.009","article-title":"Are cognitive g and academic achievement g one and the same g? An exploration on the woodcock\u2013Johnson and Kaufman tests","volume":"40","author":"Kaufman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2012.07.001","article-title":"Mind\u2013culture interactions: how writing molds mental fluidity","volume":"40","author":"Kazi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100805","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogdev.2019.100805","article-title":"Cognizance in cognitive development: a longitudinal study","volume":"52","author":"Kazi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cogn. Dev."},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.031809.130730","article-title":"The development of problem solving in young children: a critical cognitive skill","volume":"62","author":"Keen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2011.00347","article-title":"The role of representations in executive function: investigating a developmental link between flexibility and abstraction","volume":"2","author":"Kharitonova","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref78","volume-title":"Adding It Up: Helping Children Learn Mathematics","author":"Kilpatrick","year":"2001"},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1002\/rrq.107","article-title":"Developmental, component-based model of reading fluency: an investigation of predictors of word-reading fluency, text-reading fluency, and reading comprehension","volume":"50","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Read. Res. Q."},{"key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1080\/09500690902721681","article-title":"An analysis of misconceptions in science textbooks: earth science in England and Wales","volume":"32","author":"King","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Educ."},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.95.2.163","article-title":"The role of knowledge in discourse comprehension: a construction-integration model","volume":"95","author":"Kintsch","year":"1988","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.49.4.294","article-title":"Text comprehension, memory, and learning","volume":"49","author":"Kintsch","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref83","first-page":"209","article-title":"Comprehension","volume-title":"The Science of Reading: A Handbook","author":"Kintsch","year":"2007"},{"key":"ref85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1159\/000113155","article-title":"Formal operations from a twenty-first century perspective","volume":"51","author":"Kuhn","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1080\/09243450902883870","article-title":"The contribution of schooling to the cognitive development of secondary education students in Cyprus: an application of regression-discontinuity with multiple cut-off points","volume":"20","author":"Kyriakides","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sch. Eff. Sch. Improv."},{"key":"ref88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2009.03.006","article-title":"Dyslexia and dyscalculia: two learning disorders with different cognitive profiles","volume":"103","author":"Landerl","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1086\/712504","article-title":"Understanding the relation between mathematics vocabulary and mathematics performance: a meta-analysis","volume":"121","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Elem. Sch. J."},{"key":"ref90","first-page":"139","article-title":"A five-factor theory of personality","volume-title":"Handbook of Personality","author":"MacCrae","year":"1999"},{"key":"ref91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2017.01.006","article-title":"Mapping the evolving core of intelligence: relations between executive control, reasoning, language, and awareness","volume":"62","author":"Makris","year":"2017","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1111\/0938-8982.00023","article-title":"Predicting, explaining, and preventing children\u2019s reading difficulties","volume":"16","author":"McCardle","year":"2001","journal-title":"Learning disabilities research & practice"},{"key":"ref92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691616635612","article-title":"Working memory training does not improve performance on measures of intelligence or other measures of \u201cfar transfer\u201d evidence from a meta-analytic review","volume":"11","author":"Melby-Lerv\u00e5g","year":"2016","journal-title":"Perspect. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2010.12.044","article-title":"Investigating number sense among students","volume":"8","author":"Mohini","year":"2010","journal-title":"Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2011.01.008","article-title":"The role of the executive functions in school achievement at the end of grade 1","volume":"109","author":"Monette","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref95","volume-title":"Human Diversity","author":"Murray","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2009.10.006","article-title":"Symbolic and nonsymbolic number comparison in children with and without dyscalculia","volume":"115","author":"Mussolin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref98","volume-title":"The Principles and Standards for School Mathematics","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1037\/10270-000","volume-title":"The Rising Curve: Long-Term Gains in IQ and Related Measures","author":"Neisser","year":"1998"},{"key":"ref100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.51.2.77","article-title":"Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns","volume":"51","author":"Neisser","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1037\/dev0000296","article-title":"Executive control goes to school: implications of preschool executive performance for observed elementary classroom learning engagement","volume":"53","author":"Nelson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1207\/s15326985ep4001_3","article-title":"Teaching and learning fraction and rational numbers: the origins and implications of whole number bias","volume":"40","author":"Ni","year":"2005","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref103","volume-title":"The Ontario Curriculum, Grades 1\u20138: Mathematics","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1044\/jshr.2204.841","article-title":"Syntactic and phonological influences on children's articulation","volume":"22","author":"Panagos","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Speech Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2016.02.005","article-title":"Augmenting intelligence: developmental limits to learning-based cognitive change","volume":"56","author":"Papageorgiou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1044\/jshr.2504.536","article-title":"Associations between phonology and syntax in speech-delayed children","volume":"25","author":"Paul","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2013.00145","article-title":"Examining implicit metacognition in 3.5-year-old children: an eye-tracking and pupillometric study. Frontiers in psychology","volume":"4","author":"Paulus","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref002","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000182","article-title":"A meta-analysis on the relation between fluid intelligence and reading\/mathematics: Effects of tasks, age, and social economics status","volume":"145","author":"Peng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin,"},{"key":"ref108","first-page":"703","article-title":"Piaget\u2019s theory","volume-title":"Carmichael\u2019s Handbook of Child Development","author":"Piaget","year":"1970"},{"key":"ref110","year":"2012"},{"key":"ref111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2015.10.006","article-title":"The environment in raising early intelligence: a meta-analysis of the fadeout effect","volume":"53","author":"Protzko","year":"2015","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1022","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-016-1196-1","article-title":"Effects of cognitive training on the structure of intelligence","volume":"24","author":"Protzko","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-200007000-00014","article-title":"Early attention problems and children's reading achievement: a longitudinal investigation","volume":"39","author":"Rabiner","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1037\/a0025356","article-title":"Basic numerical capacities and prevalence of developmental dyscalculia: the Havana survey","volume":"48","author":"Reigosa-Crespo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1002\/per.634","article-title":"The g-factor of international cognitive ability comparisons: the homogeneity of results in PISA, TIMSS, PIRLS and IQ-tests across nations","volume":"21","author":"Rindermann","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. J. Personal."},{"key":"ref116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1358","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797618774253","article-title":"How much does education improve intelligence? A meta-analysis","volume":"29","author":"Ritchie","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2015.09.002","article-title":"Intelligence and school grades: a meta-analysis","volume":"53","author":"Roth","year":"2015","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2008.11.002","article-title":"Developmental dyscalculia: heterogeneity might not mean different mechanisms","volume":"13","author":"Rubinsten","year":"2009","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.91.3.497","article-title":"The domain specificity and generality bias: searching for a generalizable critical thinking skill","volume":"91","author":"Sa","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721417712760","article-title":"Does far transfer exist? Negative evidence from chess, music, and working memory training","volume":"26","author":"Sala","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-019-01681-y","article-title":"Working memory training in typically developing children: a multilevel meta-analysis","volume":"27","author":"Sala","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1120","DOI":"10.1037\/edu0000193","article-title":"Examining the relations between executive function, math, and literacy during the transition to kindergarten: a multi-analytic approach","volume":"109","author":"Schmitt","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref123","volume-title":"Learning Intelligence: Cognitive Acceleration Across the Curriculum From 5 to 15 Years","author":"Shayer","year":"2002"},{"key":"ref124","author":"Shiel","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref125","author":"Shiel","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691616650647","article-title":"Working memory capacity and fluid intelligence: maintenance and disengagement","volume":"11","author":"Shipstead","year":"2016","journal-title":"Perspect. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1037\/a0027473","article-title":"Is working memory training effective?","volume":"138","author":"Shipstead","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1093\/pch\/11.9.581","article-title":"Perspectives on dyslexia","volume":"11","author":"Siegel","year":"2006","journal-title":"Paediatr. Child Health"},{"key":"ref129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-010416-044101","article-title":"Numerical development","volume":"68","author":"Siegler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2012.11.004","article-title":"Fractions: the new frontier for theories of numerical development","volume":"17","author":"Siegler","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref131","volume-title":"How Children Discover New Strategies","author":"Siegler","year":"1989"},{"key":"ref132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1244","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1551-6709.2010.01129.x","article-title":"From perceptual categories to concepts: what develops?","volume":"34","author":"Sloutsky","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2014.12.003","article-title":"Embedding cognizance in intellectual development","volume":"132","author":"Spanoudis","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.2307\/1412107","article-title":"\u201cGeneral intelligence,\u201d objectively determined and measured","volume":"15","author":"Spearman","year":"1904","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref135","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2015.09.005","article-title":"Complex problem solving and intelligence: a meta-analysis","volume":"53","author":"Stadler","year":"2015","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-1562-0_25","article-title":"Intelligence and success","volume-title":"Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts","author":"Strenze","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref137","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00679","article-title":"Development of abstract mathematical reasoning: the case of algebra","volume":"8","author":"Susac","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e12940","DOI":"10.1111\/DESC.12940","article-title":"Numerosity discrimination in deep neural networks: initial competence, developmental refinement, and experience statistics","volume":"23","author":"Testolin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dev. Sci."},{"key":"ref140","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000179","article-title":"Coupled cognitive changes in adulthood: a meta-analysis","volume":"145","author":"Tucker-Drob","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref141","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-8279.2011.02035.x","article-title":"The development of executive functions and early mathematics: a dynamic relationship","volume":"82","author":"Van der Ven","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref142","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12143","article-title":"Acuity of the approximate number system and preschoolers\u2019 quantitative development","volume":"17","author":"van Marle","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dev. Sci."},{"key":"ref143","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecresq.2019.10.009","article-title":"Cross-domain associations of key cognitive correlates of early readingand early arithmetic in 5-year-olds","volume":"51","author":"Vanbinst","year":"2020","journal-title":"Early Child. Res. Q."},{"key":"ref144","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.3841","article-title":"Working memory and fluid intelligence predict reading comprehension in school-age children: a one-year longitudinal study","volume":"35","author":"Vernucci","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref145","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11858-020-01130-4","article-title":"Word problems in mathematics education: a survey","volume":"52","author":"Verschaffel","year":"2020","journal-title":"ZDM"},{"key":"ref146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203154472","volume-title":"International Handbook of Research on Conceptual Change","author":"Vosniadou","year":"2013"},{"key":"ref147","volume-title":"Thought and Language","author":"Vygotsy","year":"1986"},{"key":"ref148","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2012.03.019","article-title":"Cognitive inhibition in students with and without dyslexia and dyscalculia","volume":"33","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"ref149","volume-title":"Number Sense Series: Developing Early Number Sense NRICH","author":"Way","year":"2011"},{"key":"ref151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1007\/s10763-007-9124-5","article-title":"Number sense strategies used by pre-service teachers in Taiwan","volume":"7","author":"Yang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Math. Educ."},{"key":"ref152","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dr.2015.07.001","article-title":"Executive function: reflection, iterative reprocessing, complexity, and the developing brain","volume":"38","author":"Zelazo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Dev. Rev."},{"key":"ref153","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1037\/1089-2680.1.2.198","article-title":"Early development of executive function: a problem-solving framework","volume":"1","author":"Zelazo","year":"1997","journal-title":"Rev. Gen. Psychol."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.954971\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,29]],"date-time":"2022-09-29T12:03:28Z","timestamp":1664453008000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.954971\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,29]]},"references-count":149,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.954971"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.954971","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,29]]},"article-number":"954971"}}