{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,23]],"date-time":"2025-10-23T11:22:09Z","timestamp":1761218529019,"version":"3.41.2"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,28]],"date-time":"2022-10-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1666915200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Generally, the testimony of intoxicated witnesses has been considered relatively unreliable, but recent research has nuanced the knowledge base regarding these vulnerable witnesses.<\/jats:p><jats:sec><jats:title>Purpose<\/jats:title><jats:p>To demonstrate the application of recent research findings regarding intoxicated witnesses to the statements made by a key witness to the murder of Olof Palme, Sweden's prime minister, in 1986. An additional purpose was to illustrate the use of a nuanced calculation of blood alcohol concentration (BAC) for researchers.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>The Palme murder has been debated since the crime was committed and no one has yet been sentenced. One of the witnesses was intoxicated and to estimate a range for his BAC at the time, a comprehensive BAC calculation was conducted in this study to illustrate important factors to consider in these types of cases.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Through the demonstration of the use of a nuanced BAC formula and by applying recent research results from studies on intoxicated witnesses, it was estimated that the possible BAC of the witness in the Palme-case at the time of the witnessed crime ranged between BAC = 0 to BAC = 0.13, depending on the type of alcoholic beverage consumed and whether the witness was a social or heavy drinker. This puts the witness either well within the span of maintained completeness as well as maintained accuracy rate (if considering: lowest dose and heavy drinker), or slightly exceeding this span into the BAC-range of reduced completeness but maintained accuracy rate (if considering: highest dose and social drinker). He was questioned immediately, and thereafter repeatedly, and he reported similar information throughout the interviews, which is in line with previous results on information maintenance over repeated interviews among intoxicated witnesses.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>The current case example shows how recent research on intoxicated witnesses can be applied in praxis, illustrating important factors for legal practitioners to consider when interpreting information from intoxicated witnesses. It also provides legal practitioners and researchers with an example of a structured approach to more nuanced BAC-calculations.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.982992","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,28]],"date-time":"2022-10-28T13:33:30Z","timestamp":1666964010000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["What does current science tell us about the accuracy, reliability, and completeness of intoxicated witnesses? A case example of the murder of a prime minister"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Malin","family":"Hildebrand Karl\u00e9n","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"de Bejczy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Henrik","family":"Anckars\u00e4ter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"G\u00edsli","family":"Gu\u00f0j\u00f3nsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2010.12.042","article-title":"Binding in visual working memory: the role of the episodic buffer","volume":"49","author":"Baddeley","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.1171","article-title":"Eyewitness memory is still not common sense: comparing jurors, judges and law enforcement to eyewitness experts","volume":"20","author":"Benton","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Cogn. Psychol"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5371(78)90210-4","article-title":"Alcohol and memory: retrieval processes","volume":"17","author":"Birnbaum","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Verbal Learn. Verbal Behav."},{"key":"B4","unstructured":"2009"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1080\/09658210244000135","article-title":"Levels of processing: Past, present\u2026 and future?","volume":"10","author":"Craik","year":"2002","journal-title":"Memory"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780199278091.003.0006","article-title":"\u201cEffect of drugs on witness memory,\u201d","author":"Curran","year":"2006","journal-title":"Witness Testimony"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1007\/s10979-004-0565-x","article-title":"A meta-analytic review of the effects of high stress on eyewitness memory","volume":"28","author":"Deffenbacher","year":"2004","journal-title":"Law Human Behav."},{"journal-title":"Alcohol and Crime","year":"2006","author":"Dingwall","key":"B8"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e50977","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0050977","article-title":"Dose-related effects of alcohol on cognitive functioning","volume":"7","author":"Dry","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1037\/a0016837","article-title":"Intoxicated witnesses and suspects: Procedures and prevalence according to law enforcement","volume":"15","author":"Evans","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychol. Public Policy Law"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1006\/appe.1998.0168","article-title":"Effects of meal composition on blood alcohol level, psychomotor performance and subjective state after ingestion of alcohol","volume":"31","author":"Finnigan","year":"1998","journal-title":"Appetite"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-67867-8_3","article-title":"\u201cImpact of alcohol on memory: a systematic review,\u201d","author":"Flowe","year":"2021","journal-title":"Alcohol and Remembering Rape: New Evidence for Practice"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.1080\/09658211.2015.1064536","article-title":"Alcohol and remembering a hypothetical sexual assault: Can people who were under the influence of alcohol during the event provide accurate testimony?","volume":"24","author":"Flowe","year":"2016","journal-title":"Memory"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.15288\/jsad.2007.68.303","article-title":"Recall bias for seven-day recall measurement of alcohol consumption among emergency department patients: implications for case-crossover designs","volume":"68","author":"Gmel","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1038\/227201a0","article-title":"Loss of short-term memory as a predictor of the alcoholic \u201cBlack out\u201d","volume":"227","author":"Goodwin","year":"1970","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nedt.2003.10.001","article-title":"Qualitative content analysis in nursing research: concepts, procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness","volume":"24","author":"Graneheim","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nurse Educ. Today"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1002\/jip.1581","article-title":"The relative impact of different \u2018resistant behavioural responses' on interrogative suggestibility in children: the powerful contribution of \u2018direct explanation' replies to unanswerable questions","volume":"19","author":"Gudjonsson","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Invest. Psychol. Offender Profiling"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2020.110385","article-title":"An investigation of \u2018don't know' and \u2018direct explanation' response style on the gudjonsson suggestibility scale: a comparison of three different vulnerability groups","volume":"168","author":"Gudjonsson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pers. Individual Diff."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119315636","author":"Gudjonsson","year":"2018","journal-title":"The Psychology of False Confessions. Forty Years of Science and Practice"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1111\/sjop.12035","article-title":"Bottled memories. On how alcohol affects eyewitness recall","volume":"54","author":"Hagsand","year":"2012","journal-title":"Scand. J. Psychol."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1080\/09658211.2016.1191652","article-title":"Witnesses stumbling down memory lane: The effects of alcohol intoxication, retention interval, and repeated interviewing","volume":"25","author":"Hagsand","year":"2017","journal-title":"Memory"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.10.1.156","article-title":"Intact retention in acute alcohol amnesia","volume":"10","author":"Hashtroudi","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-28720-6_135","article-title":"Stimulant and sedative effects of alcohol","volume":"13","author":"Hendler","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci."},{"journal-title":"Staten, Supen Och Systemet: Svensk Alkoholpolitik Och Alkoholkultur 1855-2005. Vin- and Sprithistoriska Museet.","year":"2008","author":"Johansson","key":"B24"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2010.02.021","article-title":"Evidence-based survey of the elimination rates of ethanol from blood with applications in forensic casework","volume":"200","author":"Jones","year":"2010","journal-title":"For. Sci. Int."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.3533","article-title":"A meta-analysis of the effects of acute alcohol intoxication on witness recall","volume":"33","author":"Jores","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-843X.99.2.115","article-title":"The two faces of Alcohol myopia: attentional mediation of psychological stress","volume":"99","author":"Josephs","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Psychol."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1293","DOI":"10.1111\/add.13341","article-title":"Governmental standard drink definitions and low-risk alcohol consumption guidelines in 37 countries","volume":"111","author":"Kalinowski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1111\/sjop.12345","article-title":"To wait or not to wait? Improving results when interviewing intoxicated witnesses to violence","volume":"58","author":"Karlen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Scand. J. Psychol"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.103.3.490","article-title":"Monitoring and control processes in the strategic regulation of memory accuracy","volume":"103","author":"Koriat","year":"1996","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.51.1.481","article-title":"Towards a psychology of memory accuracy","volume":"51","author":"Koriat","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.4236\/ojmp.2013.23017","article-title":"Intoxicated eyewitnesses: The effects of alcohol on eyewitness recall across repeated interviews","volume":"2","author":"La Rooy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Open J. Med. Psychol."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1515\/IJDHD.2007.6.4.397","article-title":"The acute effects of alcohol on memory: a review of laboratory studies in healthy adults","volume":"6","author":"Mintzer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Disabil. Human Dev."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2004.06.031","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of drug addiction","volume":"47","author":"Nestler","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"year":"","key":"B35"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2165\/00003088-200342010-00001","article-title":"Role of variability in explaining ethanol pharmacokinetics","volume":"42","author":"Norberg","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacokinet."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1037\/h0101794","article-title":"Enhancing the quantity and accuracy of eyewitness memory via initial memory testing","volume":"1","author":"Pansky","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.330.7482.85","article-title":"Alcohol in the body","volume":"330","author":"Paton","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ALC.0000065434.92204.A1","article-title":"Alcohol affects executive functioning differentially on the ascending versus descending limb of the blood alcohol concentration curve","volume":"27","author":"Pihl","year":"2003","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1037\/h0031185","article-title":"Analysis of rehearsal processes in free recall","volume":"89","author":"Rundus","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.114.3.459","article-title":"An appraisal-disruption model of alcohol's effects on stress responses in social drinkers","volume":"114","author":"Sayette","year":"1993","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1037\/h0093951","article-title":"Intoxicated eyewitnesses: better than their reputation?","volume":"36","author":"Schreiber Compo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Law Human Behav."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1177\/0025802414524385","article-title":"Alcohol calculations and their uncertainty","volume":"55","author":"Searle","year":"2015","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Law"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1007\/s004140000154","article-title":"The calculation of blood ethanol concentrations in males and females","volume":"114","author":"Seidl","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Legal Med."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-005-0096-2","article-title":"Memory encoding and retrieval on the ascending and descending limbs of the blood alcohol concentration curve","volume":"182","author":"S\u00f6derlund","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"B46","first-page":"93","article-title":"\u201cAlkohol [Alcohol],\u201d","author":"S\u00f6derpalm","year":"2011","journal-title":"Beroendemedicin [Addiction medicine]"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1037\/0894-4105.13.2.282","article-title":"The selective effect of alcohol on automatic and effortful memory processes","volume":"13","author":"Tracy","year":"1999","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"B48","first-page":"59","article-title":"Biology, genetics, and environment: underlying factors influencing alcohol metabolism","volume":"38","author":"Wall","year":"2016","journal-title":"Alcohol Res."},{"key":"B49","first-page":"186","article-title":"What happened? Alcohol, memory blackouts and the brain","volume":"27","author":"White","year":"2003","journal-title":"Alcohol Res. Health"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-8993(00)02629-9","article-title":"Effects of ethanol on hippocampal place-cell and interneuron activity","volume":"876","author":"White","year":"2002","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1098-1063(2000)10:1<88::AID-HIPO10>3.0.CO;2-L","article-title":"Ethanol, memory and hippocampal functioning: A review of recent findings","volume":"10","author":"White","year":"2000","journal-title":"Hippocampus"},{"key":"B52","unstructured":"Legal BAC Limits Per Country2022"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-0738(84)90189-0","article-title":"The rate and kinetic order of ethanol elimination","volume":"25","author":"Winek","year":"1983","journal-title":"For. Sci. Int."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5371(73)80040-4","article-title":"Recall and recognition as a function of primary rehearsal","volume":"12","author":"Woodward","year":"1973","journal-title":"J. Verbal Learn. Verbal Behav."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-9010.75.3.268","article-title":"Some effects of alcohol on eyewitness memory","volume":"75","author":"Yuille","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Applied Psychol."},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2125.2010.03846.x","article-title":"Functional biomarkers for the acute effects of alcohol on the central nervous system in healthy volunteers","volume":"71","author":"Zoethout","year":"2011","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.982992\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,29]],"date-time":"2023-11-29T18:51:49Z","timestamp":1701283909000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.982992\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,28]]},"references-count":56,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.982992"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.982992","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1664-1078"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,28]]},"article-number":"982992"}}