{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T23:16:38Z","timestamp":1792019798090,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,23]],"date-time":"2023-02-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1677110400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Previous research has shown that simulated child sexual abuse (CSA) interview training using avatars paired with feedback and modeling improves interview quality. However, to make this approach scalable, the classification of interviewer questions needs to be automated. We tested an automated question classification system for these avatar interviews while also providing automated interventions (feedback and modeling) to improve interview quality. Forty-two professionals conducted two simulated CSA interviews online and were randomly provided with no intervention, feedback, or modeling after the first interview. Feedback consisted of the outcome of the alleged case and comments on the quality of the interviewer\u2019s questions. Modeling consisted of learning points and videos illustrating good and bad questioning methods. The total percentage of agreement in question coding between human operators and the automated classification was 72% for the main categories (recommended vs. not recommended) and 52% when 11 subcategories were considered. The intervention groups improved from first to second interview while this was not the case in the no intervention group (intervention x time: <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20090.007, <jats:italic>\u03b7<jats:sub>p<\/jats:sub><\/jats:italic><jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\u2009=\u20090.28). Automated question classification worked well for classifying the interviewers\u2019 questions allowing interventions to improve interview quality.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1133621","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,23]],"date-time":"2023-02-23T04:58:10Z","timestamp":1677128290000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["AI avatar tells you what happened: The first test of using AI-operated children in simulated interviews to train investigative interviewers"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Shumpei","family":"Haginoya","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tatsuro","family":"Ibe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shota","family":"Yamamoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Naruyo","family":"Yoshimoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hazuki","family":"Mizushi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pekka","family":"Santtila","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","volume-title":"Social Learning Theory","author":"Bandura","year":"1977"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1007\/s00038-012-0426-1","article-title":"The current prevalence of child sexual abuse worldwide: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"58","author":"Barth","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1145\/1007730.1007735","article-title":"A study of the behavior of several methods for balancing machine learning training data","volume":"6","author":"Batista","year":"2004","journal-title":"ACM SIGKDD Explor. Newsl."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1177\/1461355715580912","article-title":"Organisational challenges to delivering child investigative interviewer training via e-learning","volume":"17","author":"Benson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Police Sci. Manag."},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1037\/law0000052","article-title":"Evaluation of a comprehensive interactive training system for investigative interviewers of children","volume":"21","author":"Benson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychol. Public Policy Law"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajic.2016.11.029","article-title":"Electronic monitoring in combination with direct observation as a means to significantly improve hand hygiene compliance","volume":"45","author":"Boyce","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Infect. Control"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2015.02.004","article-title":"The effects of e-simulation interview training on teachers' use of open-ended questions","volume":"43","author":"Brubacher","year":"2015","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1037\/law0000332","article-title":"Teaching child investigative interviewing skills: long-term retention requires cumulative training","volume":"28","author":"Brubacher","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychol. Public Policy Law"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.50.1.419","article-title":"The suggestibility of children\u2019s memory","volume":"50","author":"Bruck","year":"1999","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100027","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2021.100027","article-title":"Automatic feedback in online learning environments: a systematic literature review","volume":"2","author":"Cavalcanti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comp. Educ. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.113.3.403","article-title":"Suggestibility of the child witness: a historical review and synthesis","volume":"113","author":"Ceci","year":"1993","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1037\/10180-000","volume-title":"Jeopardy in the Courtroom. A scientific analysis of children\u2019s testimony","author":"Ceci","year":"1995"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1016\/S0145-2134(00)00183-6","article-title":"Investigative interviews of child witnesses in Sweden","volume":"24","author":"Cederborg","year":"2000","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref14","first-page":"785","article-title":"XGBoost: a scalable tree boosting system","volume-title":"Proceedings of the ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, 13-17-August-2016","author":"Chen","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.1810.04805","article-title":"Bert: pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding","author":"Devlin","year":"2018","journal-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:1810.04805"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1002\/bsl.2370120306","article-title":"Forensic sexual abuse evaluations of older children: disclosures and symptomatology","volume":"12","author":"Elliott","year":"1994","journal-title":"Behav. Sci. Law"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-0965(03)00025-0","article-title":"Validity of a test of children\u2019s suggestibility for predicting responses to two interview situations differing in their degree of suggestiveness","volume":"85","author":"Finnil\u00e4","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1017\/ice.2015.93","article-title":"Quantifying the Hawthorne effect in hand hygiene compliance through comparing direct observation with automated hand hygiene monitoring","volume":"36","author":"Hagel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/pyqxb","article-title":"AI avatar tells you what happened: the first test of using AI-operated children in simulated interviews to train investigative interviewers","author":"Haginoya","year":"2022","journal-title":"PsyArXiv [Preprint]"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"998","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.00998","article-title":"Online simulation training of child sexual abuse interviews with feedback improves interview quality in Japanese university students","volume":"11","author":"Haginoya","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105013","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2021.105013","article-title":"The combination of feedback and modeling in online simulation training of child sexual abuse interviews improves interview quality in clinical psychologists","volume":"115","author":"Haginoya","year":"2021","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"830","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(19)30286-X","article-title":"Long-term outcomes of childhood sexual abuse: an umbrella review","volume":"6","author":"Hailes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref25","first-page":"247","article-title":"Forensic child sexual abuse evaluations: accuracy, ethics, and admissibility","volume-title":"The Evaluation of Child Sexual Abuse Allegations, a Comprehensive Guide to Assessment and Testimony","author":"Herman","year":"2009"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.3147","article-title":"Best practice recommendations still fail to result in action: a national 10-year follow-up study of investigative interviews in CSA cases","volume":"29","author":"Johnson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"753111","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.753111","article-title":"Transfer of avatar training effects to investigative field interviews of children conducted by police officers","volume":"13","author":"Kask","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3713","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-022-13428-4","article-title":"Natural language processing: state of the art, current trends and challenges","volume":"82","author":"Khurana","year":"2022","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1080\/10683160701368438","article-title":"Failing to keep it simple: language use in child sexual abuse interviews with 3\u20138-year-old children","volume":"14","author":"Korkman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychol. Crime Law"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9450.2006.00498.x","article-title":"Dynamics of verbal interaction between interviewer and child in interviews with alleged victims of child sexual abuse","volume":"47","author":"Korkman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Scand. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1348\/135532508X398549","article-title":"The effect of repeated questioning on children\u2019s accuracy and consistency in eyewitness testimony","volume":"14","author":"Kr\u00e4henb\u00fchl","year":"2009","journal-title":"Leg. Criminol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.3316","article-title":"The effects of feedback and reflection on the questioning style of untrained interviewers in simulated child sexual abuse interviews","volume":"31","author":"Krause","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118881248","volume-title":"Tell me what happened: Questioning children about abuse","author":"Lamb","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1177\/016502549601900310","article-title":"Effects of investigative utterance types on Israeli children\u2019s responses","volume":"19","author":"Lamb","year":"1996","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Dev."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1207\/S1532480XADS0601_04","article-title":"Is ongoing feedback necessary to maintain the quality of investigative interviews with allegedly abused children?","volume":"6","author":"Lamb","year":"","journal-title":"Appl. Dev. Sci."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.71.5.926","article-title":"Age differences in young children\u2019s responses to open-ended invitations in the course of forensic interviews","volume":"71","author":"Lamb","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Consult. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1207\/S1532480XADS0603_2","article-title":"The effects of intensive training and ongoing supervision on the quality of investigative interviews with alleged sex abuse victims","volume":"6","author":"Lamb","year":"","journal-title":"Appl. Dev. Sci."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.2307\/2529310","article-title":"The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data","volume":"33","author":"Landis","year":"1977","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-lawsocsci-110413-030913","article-title":"Interviewing children","volume":"10","author":"Lyon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Law Soc. Sci."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1080\/10888691.2016.1158652","article-title":"\u201cHow\u201d and \u201cwhy\u201d prompts in forensic investigative interviews with preschool children","volume":"21","author":"Malloy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Dev. Sci."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2013.08.015","article-title":"Systematic review of the Hawthorne effect: new concepts are needed to study research participation effects","volume":"67","author":"McCambridge","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1474","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.01474","article-title":"A combination of outcome and process feedback enhances performance in simulations of child sexual abuse interviews using avatars","volume":"8","author":"Pompedda","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1080\/19012276.2020.1788417","article-title":"Transfer of simulated interview training effects into interviews with children exposed to a mock event","volume":"73","author":"Pompedda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nordic Psychol."},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1080\/1068316X.2014.915323","article-title":"Simulations of child sexual abuse interviews using avatars paired with feedback improves interview quality","volume":"21","author":"Pompedda","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychol. Crime Law"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1007\/s11896-022-09509-7","article-title":"A mega-analysis of the effects of feedback on the quality of simulated child sexual abuse interviews with avatars","volume":"37","author":"Pompedda","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Police Crim. Psychol."},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1080\/10439463.2014.942850","article-title":"Improving child investigative interviewer performance through computer-based learning activities","volume":"26","author":"Powell","year":"2016","journal-title":"Polic. Soc."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.3390\/BDCC6020062","article-title":"Synthesizing a talking child avatar to train interviewers working with maltreated children","volume":"6","author":"Salehi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Big Data Cogn. Comp."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1016\/S0191-8869(00)00077-5","article-title":"A suggestibility scale for children","volume":"30","author":"Scullin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.inffus.2021.11.011","article-title":"Tabular data: deep learning is not all you need","volume":"81","author":"Shwartz-Ziv","year":"2022","journal-title":"Inform. Fusion"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/S0193-3973(96)90036-2","article-title":"The relation between investigative utterance types and the informativeness of child witnesses","volume":"17","author":"Sternberg","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Appl. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-9010.86.5.997","article-title":"Use of a structured investigative protocol enhances young children\u2019s responses to free-recall prompts in the course of forensic interviews","volume":"86","author":"Sternberg","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Appl. Psychol."},{"key":"ref53","article-title":"The ViContact VR training: virtual children and their response algorithm","volume-title":"Annual Conference of the International Investigative Interviewing Research Group (IIIRG)","author":"Tamm","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-9010.90.4.692","article-title":"A meta-analytic review of behavior modeling training","volume":"90","author":"Taylor","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Appl. Psychol."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1111\/1556-4029.12987","article-title":"Measuring Children\u2019s suggestibility in forensic interviews","volume":"61","author":"Volpini","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Forensic Sci."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1133621\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,23]],"date-time":"2023-02-23T04:58:17Z","timestamp":1677128297000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1133621\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,23]]},"references-count":52,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1133621"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1133621","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,23]]},"article-number":"1133621"}}