{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T13:15:11Z","timestamp":1787922911627,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,16]],"date-time":"2023-08-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1692144000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) is a computerized and child-friendly neuropsychological assessment battery that includes subtests aimed at evaluating some aspects of executive functions. Using the CANTAB, this study aims to establish normative values based on the aspects of executive functions among school-aged children in Japan. The participants included 234 children (135 boys and 99 girls aged 6\u201312\u2009years) enrolled in regular classes, without any clinical records of developmental disorders or educational support. The participants were grouped according to age (6\u20137, 8\u20139, and 10\u201312\u2009years). Four CANTAB subtests, including spatial working memory (SWM) to assess spatial working memory, Stockings of Cambridge (SOC) to evaluate planning, intra\/extradimensional set shift (IED) to evaluate attentional set shifting and flexibility, and stop signal task (SST) to evaluate inhibition, were administered to each participant. The results showed that performance in all the CANTAB subtests administered changed with age. Among the subtests, compared with performances in the SOC and IED, those in the SWM and SST improved earlier, thereby indicating that spatial working memory and inhibition develop earlier than planning as well as attentional set shifting and flexibility. Additionally, in the SST subtest, girls made fewer errors than boys did in the 6\u20137\u2009years group. This study presents normative data of four CANTAB subtests according to age and sex among school-aged children in Japan. We expect that the findings will be used to develop effective tools for the early detection of and support for children with executive dysfunction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1141628","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,17]],"date-time":"2023-08-17T14:21:00Z","timestamp":1692282060000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Examining normative values using the Cambridge neuropsychological test automated battery and developmental traits of executive functions among elementary school-aged children in Japan"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Sho","family":"Aoki","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fumiyo","family":"Nagatani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kuriko","family":"Kagitani-Shimono","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuko","family":"Ohno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Masako","family":"Taniike","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ikuko","family":"Mohri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1076\/chin.8.2.71.8724","article-title":"Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood","volume":"8","author":"Anderson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Child Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1736359","article-title":"Working memory","volume":"255","author":"Baddeley","year":"1992","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2013.06.005","article-title":"Inhibition and impulsivity: behavioral and neural basis of response control","volume":"108","author":"Bari","year":"2013","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaac.2018.01.014","article-title":"Data-driven subtyping of executive function-related behavioral problems in children","volume":"57","author":"Bathelt","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1649","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2003.07.003","article-title":"Dynamic functional changes associated with cognitive skill learning of an adapted version of the tower of London task","volume":"20","author":"Beauchamp","year":"2003","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1641","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2010.01499.x","article-title":"A developmental perspective on executive function","volume":"81","author":"Best","year":"2010","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dr.2009.05.002","article-title":"Executive functions after age 5: changes and correlates","volume":"29","author":"Best","year":"2009","journal-title":"Dev. Rev."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219410371676","article-title":"The specific role of inhibition in reading comprehension in good and poor comprehenders","volume":"43","author":"Borella","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Learn. Disabil."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0963-7214.2006.00419.x","article-title":"A brain-based account of the development of rule use in childhood","volume":"15","author":"Bunge","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2650","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2008.04.021","article-title":"Dissociable roles of prefrontal subregions in self-ordered working memory performance","volume":"46","author":"Chase","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1625","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291715002238","article-title":"Deficits in executive functions among youths with autism spectrum disorders: an age-stratified analysis","volume":"46","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.3389\/fnana.2016.00009","article-title":"Maturation along white matter tracts in human brain using a diffusion tensor surface model tract-specific analysis","volume":"10","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Neuroanat."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1100537","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1100537","article-title":"Culture, executive functions, and academic achievement","volume":"14","author":"Cho","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291713001761","article-title":"A longitudinal examination of neuropsychological and clinical functioning in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): improvements in executive functioning do not explain clinical improvement","volume":"44","author":"Coghill","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2008.02.005","article-title":"Examining executive functioning in children with autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and typical development","volume":"166","author":"Corbett","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.12464","article-title":"To stroop or not to stroop: sex-related differences in brain-behavior associations during early childhood","volume":"53","author":"Cuevas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-017-1480-5","article-title":"Cortical morphology of the pars opercularis and its relationship to motor-inhibitory performance in a longitudinal, developing cohort","volume":"223","author":"Curley","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2015.07.003","article-title":"Demystifying cognitive flexibility: implications for clinical and developmental neuroscience","volume":"38","author":"Dajani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.00722","article-title":"Cognitive remediation interventions in autism spectrum condition: a systematic review","volume":"11","author":"Dandil","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psych."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1076\/jcen.25.2.242.13639","article-title":"Normative data from the Cantab. I: development of executive function over the lifespan","volume":"25","author":"De Luca","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-113011-143750","article-title":"Executive functions","volume":"64","author":"Diamond","year":"2013","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1024190429920","article-title":"Frontal lobe and cognitive development","volume":"31","author":"Fuster","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neurocytol."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.934","article-title":"Working memory skills and educational attainment: evidence from national curriculum assessments at 7 and 14 years of age","volume":"18","author":"Gathercole","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1076\/chin.6.3.235.3152","article-title":"Test review behavior rating inventory of executive function","volume":"6","author":"Gioia","year":"2000","journal-title":"Child Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8174","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0402680101","article-title":"Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood","volume":"101","author":"Gogtay","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1080\/13803395.2018.1529229","article-title":"Assessment of neuropsychological performance in Mexico City youth using the Cambridge neuropsychological test automated battery (CANTAB)","volume":"41","author":"Green","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.9758\/cpn.2020.18.4.527","article-title":"Effects of non-invasive neurostimulation on autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review","volume":"18","author":"Khaleghi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Psychopharmacol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1037\/a0030694","article-title":"Sustaining attention to simple tasks: a meta-analytic review of the neural mechanisms of vigilant attention","volume":"139","author":"Langner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0202964","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0202964","article-title":"Childhood socioeconomic status and executive function in childhood and beyond","volume":"13","author":"Last","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1065","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2007.03.053","article-title":"Sexual dimorphism of brain developmental trajectories during childhood and adolescence","volume":"36","author":"Lenroot","year":"2007","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-7610.00152","article-title":"Practitioner review: computerized assessment of neuropsychological function in children: clinical and research applications of the Cambridge neuropsychological testing automated battery (CANTAB)","volume":"44","author":"Luciana","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Child. Psychol. Psychi."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3932(97)00109-7","article-title":"The functional emergence of prefrontally-guided working memory systems in four- to eight-year-old children","volume":"36","author":"Luciana","year":"1998","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1207\/S15326942DN2203_3","article-title":"Assessment of neuropsychological function through use of the Cambridge neuropsychological testing automated battery: performance in 4- to 12-year-old children","volume":"22","author":"Luciana","year":"2002","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1037\/11587-001","article-title":"The concept of inhibition in cognition","volume-title":"Inhibition in cognition","author":"MacLeod","year":"2007"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"854","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2009.11.001","article-title":"Response inhibition is associated with white matter microstructure in children","volume":"48","author":"Madsen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.20821\/jbs.39.0_5","article-title":"Assessment of executive function using the behavior rating inventory of executive function (BRIEF) and the Cambridge neuropsychological test automated battery (CANTAB) in young children with attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder, inattention type","volume":"39","author":"Nagatani","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.23368","article-title":"A meta-analysis on the neural basis of planning: activation likelihood estimation of functional brain imaging results in the tower of London task","volume":"38","author":"Nitschke","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3932(90)90137-D","article-title":"Planning and spatial working memory following frontal lobe lesions in man","volume":"28","author":"Owen","year":"1990","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9568.1996.tb01219.x","article-title":"Planning and spatial working memory: a positron emission tomography study in humans","volume":"8","author":"Owen","year":"1996","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"993","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3932(91)90063-E","article-title":"Extra-dimensional versus intra-dimensional set shifting performance following frontal lobe excisions, temporal lobe excisions or amygdalo-hippocampectomy in man","volume":"29","author":"Owen","year":"1991","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617798455073","article-title":"A study of performance on tests from the CANTAB battery sensitive to frontal lobe dysfunction in a large sample of normal volunteers: implications for theories of executive functioning and cognitive aging","volume":"4","author":"Robbins","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc."},{"key":"ref42","first-page":"266","article-title":"Cambridge neuropsychological test automated battery (CANTAB): a factor analytic study of a large sample of normal elderly volunteers","volume":"5","author":"Robbins","year":"1994","journal-title":"Dementia"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awp269","article-title":"Executive function and fluid intelligence after frontal lobe lesions","volume":"133","author":"Roca","year":"2010","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1162\/089892900561931","article-title":"Contrasting cortical and subcortical activations produced by attentional-set shifting and reversal learning in humans","volume":"12","author":"Rogers","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1207\/s15324826an1204_2","article-title":"A model of the development of frontal lobe functioning: findings from a meta-analysis","volume":"12","author":"Romine","year":"2005","journal-title":"Appl. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.3922\/j.psns.2011.2.011","article-title":"The use of the Cambridge neuropsychological test automated battery (CANTAB) in neuropsychological assessment: application in Brazilian research with control children and adults with neurological disorders","volume":"4","author":"Roque","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appdev.2016.04.006","article-title":"Relationship of TV watching, computer use, and reading to children\u2019s neurocognitive functions","volume":"46","author":"Rosenqvist","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Appl. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1177\/1362361309335716","article-title":"Set-shifting in children with autism spectrum disorders: reversal shifting deficits on the Intradimensional\/extradimensional shift test correlate with repetitive behaviors","volume":"13","author":"Yerys","year":"2009","journal-title":"Autism"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3922","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhy271","article-title":"Cultural variation in the gray matter volume of the prefrontal cortex is moderated by the dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4)","volume":"29","author":"Yu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1937","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bht051","article-title":"Functional networks in parallel with cortical development associate with executive functions in children","volume":"24","author":"Zhong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e23","DOI":"10.1017\/sjp.2016.23","article-title":"Executive functions as predictors of school performance and social relationships: primary and secondary school students","volume":"19","author":"Zorza","year":"2016","journal-title":"Span. J. Psychol."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1141628\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,17]],"date-time":"2023-08-17T14:21:06Z","timestamp":1692282066000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1141628\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,16]]},"references-count":51,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1141628"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1141628","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,16]]},"article-number":"1141628"}}