{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T00:27:50Z","timestamp":1792801670849,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,15]],"date-time":"2024-07-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1721001600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>The use of psychoactive substances to increase cognitive performance while studying has been termed \u2018pharmacological cognitive enhancement\u2019 (PCE). In previous years, several large-scale national surveys have focused on their use by students at university, including drug types, prevalence rates, and predictive factors. The recent coronavirus pandemic brought about widespread structural changes for UK universities, as students were forced to adapt to home-based learning and in many cases reduced academic support. No study has yet focused primarily on the impact of pandemic social restrictions on PCE in students and academic staff, and whether personality and demographic factors reveal user profiles that predict use during the pandemic period.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Method<\/jats:title><jats:p>A convenience sample of 736 UK students and staff aged 18\u201354 (<jats:italic>M<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u200922.2, <jats:italic>SD<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20095.2) completed a cross-sectional survey assessing PCE prevalence rates, polydrug use, perceived effects, academic self-efficacy and personality during the first year of social restrictions (March 2020 \u2013 February 2021) compared with the previous year (March 2019 \u2013 February 2020).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>There was a significant self-reported rise in the use of all drug types (all <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>s\u2009&amp;lt;\u20090.001) during social restrictions, particularly with Modafinil (+42%), nutraceuticals (+30.2%) and microdose LSD (+22.2%). Respondents also indicated stronger PCE effects for all substances, except alcohol, in comparison to the previous year. Polydrug use with modafinil and other prescription stimulants increased the most during social restrictions. Personality factors and gender identity reliably predicted PCE use and lower agreeableness was often the strongest predictor, followed by identifying as male and lower conscientiousness. Academic self-efficacy and student\/academic staff status were not consistent predictors.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>This is the first survey of UK students to investigate PCE during coronavirus social restrictions and to assess predictive factors. Findings reveal a rise in PCE use and polydrug use which we suggest is because of increased pressures on students created by the lockdown and reduced access to university resources.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2024.1356496","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,15]],"date-time":"2024-07-15T05:03:07Z","timestamp":1721019787000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["The rising use of cognitive enhancement drugs and predictors of use during COVID-19: findings from a cross-sectional survey of students and university staff in the UK"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Jamie L.","family":"Tully","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oliver","family":"Bridge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joseph","family":"Rennie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joy","family":"Kreck\u00e9","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tobias","family":"Stevens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21945","DOI":"10.5812\/ijhrba.21945","article-title":"Prescription drugs, alcohol, and illicit substance use and their correlations among medical sciences students in Iran","volume":"4","author":"Abbasi Ghahramanloo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. 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