{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,14]],"date-time":"2026-03-14T22:35:36Z","timestamp":1773527736146,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,17]],"date-time":"2024-09-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1726531200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title><jats:p>We aimed to advance our understanding of the effect of chess on cognition by expanding previous univariate studies with the use of graph theory on cognitive data. Specifically, we investigated the cognitive connectome of adult chess players.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Method<\/jats:title><jats:p>We included 19 chess players and 19 controls with ages between 39 and 69\u2009years. Univariate analysis and graph theory included 27 cognitive measures representing multiple cognitive domains and subdomains. Graph analysis included global and nodal measures of integration, segregation, and centrality. We also performed an analysis of community structures to gain an additional understanding of the cognitive architecture of chess players.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The analysis of global graph measures showed that chess players had a higher local efficiency than controls at the cost of a lower global efficiency, which did not permeate segregation aspects of their connectome. The nodal graph measures showed that executive\/attention\/processing speed and visuoconstructive nodes had a central role in the connectome of chess players. The analysis of communities showed that chess players had a slightly reorganized cognitive architecture into three modules. These graph theory findings were in the context of better cognitive performance in chess players than controls in visuospatial abilities.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>We conclude that the cognitive architecture of chess players is slightly reorganized into functionally and anatomically coherent modules reflecting a distinction between visual, verbal, and executive\/attention\/processing speed-related functions, perhaps reminiscent of right hemisphere and left hemisphere subnetworks orchestrated by the frontal lobe and its white matter connections.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2024.1407583","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,18]],"date-time":"2024-09-18T12:37:19Z","timestamp":1726663039000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["The effect of chess on cognition: a graph theory study on cognitive data"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Lissett","family":"Gonzalez-Burgos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Candida","family":"Lozano-Rodriguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yaiza","family":"Molina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Eloy","family":"Garcia-Cabello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ram\u00f3n","family":"Aciego","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Barroso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01359220","article-title":"Stroop-like interference in chess players\u2019 imagery: an unexplored possibility to be revealed by the adapted moving-spot task","volume":"54","author":"Bachmann","year":"1992","journal-title":"Psychol. Res."},{"key":"ref2","author":"Benedet","year":"1998"},{"key":"ref3","volume-title":"Multilingual aphasia examination","author":"Benton","year":"1989"},{"key":"ref4","volume-title":"Contributions to neuropsychological assessment: a clinical manual","author":"Benton","year":"1983"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1037\/a0020756","article-title":"Mechanisms and neural basis of object and pattern recognition: a study with chess experts","volume":"139","author":"Bilali\u0107","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Gen."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1017\/S0021932005001185","article-title":"How intellectual is chess?--a reply to Howard","volume":"38","author":"Bilali\u0107","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Biosoc. Sci."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1551-6709.2009.01030.x","article-title":"Specialization effect and its influence on memory and problem solving in expert chess players","volume":"33","author":"Bilali\u0107","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2008.1576","article-title":"Why are (the best) women so good at chess? Participation rates and gender differences in intellectual domains","volume":"276","author":"Bilali\u0107","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proceed. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2728","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.21396","article-title":"Expertise modulates the neural basis of context dependent recognition of objects and their relations","volume":"33","author":"Bilali\u0107","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2015.06.004","article-title":"Sex differences in chess performance: analyzing participation rates, age, and practice in chess tournaments","volume":"86","author":"Blanch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"P10008","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-5468\/2008\/10\/P10008","article-title":"Fast unfolding of communities in large networks","volume":"2008","author":"Blondel","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Statistic. Mechanics"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1037\/a0024236","article-title":"Chess masters show a hallmark of face processing with chess","volume":"141","author":"Boggan","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Gen."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1886","DOI":"10.1080\/17470210701781155","article-title":"The role of meaning in contextual cueing: evidence from chess expertise","volume":"61","author":"Brockmole","year":"2008","journal-title":"Q. J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2575","article-title":"Complex brain networks: graph theoretical analysis of structural and functional systems","volume":"10","author":"Bullmore","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2016.08.002","article-title":"The relationship between cognitive ability and chess skill: a comprehensive meta-analysis","volume":"59","author":"Burgoyne","year":"2016","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1040","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2006.01828.x","article-title":"Sex differences in intellectual performance analysis of a large cohort of competitive chess players","volume":"17","author":"Chabris","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00665.x","article-title":"Participation rates and maximal performance: a log-linear explanation for group differences, such as Russian and male dominance in chess","volume":"7","author":"Charness","year":"1996","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1146","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03206384","article-title":"The perceptual aspect of skilled performance in chess: evidence from eye movements","volume":"29","author":"Charness","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0285(73)90004-2","article-title":"Perception in chess","volume":"4","author":"Chase","year":"1973","journal-title":"Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref20","volume-title":"Luria\u2019s neupsychological investigation","author":"Christensen","year":"1979"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1093\/arclin\/acv011","article-title":"Fund of Information is more strongly associated with neuropsychological functioning than education in older Spanish adults","volume":"30","author":"Correia","year":"2015","journal-title":"Archives Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref23","volume-title":"Color Trail 1 and 2","author":"D\u2019Elia","year":"1989"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2012.01.047","article-title":"Reduced caudate volume and enhanced striatal-DMN integration in chess experts","volume":"60","author":"Duan","year":"2012","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2014.02.033","article-title":"Functional organization of intrinsic connectivity networks in Chinese-chess experts","volume":"1558","author":"Duan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref26","volume-title":"The rating of chessplayers, past and present","author":"Elo","year":"1978"},{"key":"ref27","first-page":"275","article-title":"Auditory memory function in expert chess players","volume":"29","author":"Fattahi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Med. J. Islam"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2016.05.061","article-title":"Different reserve proxies confer overlapping and unique endurance to cortical thinning in healthy middle-aged adults","volume":"311","author":"Ferreira","year":"2016","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2019.00524","article-title":"Subtypes of Alzheimer\u2019s disease display distinct network abnormalities extending beyond their pattern of brain atrophy","volume":"10","author":"Ferreira","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3956(75)90026-6","article-title":"\u201cMini-mental state\u201d. A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician","volume":"12","author":"Folstein","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"694254","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2021.694254","article-title":"The cognitive connectome in healthy aging","volume":"13","author":"Garcia-Cabello","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-0277(98)00020-1","article-title":"Expert memory: a comparison of four theories","volume":"66","author":"Gobet","year":"1998","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref33","first-page":"523","volume-title":"\u2018Expertise in chess\u2019, in","author":"Gobet","year":"2006"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1006\/cogp.1996.0011","article-title":"Templates in chess memory: a mechanism for recalling several boards","volume":"31","author":"Gobet","year":"1996","journal-title":"Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1080\/741942359","article-title":"Expert chess memory: revisiting the chunking hypothesis","volume":"6","author":"Gobet","year":"1998","journal-title":"Memory"},{"key":"ref36","volume-title":"Stroop colour and word test: A manual for clinical and experimental uses","author":"Golden","year":"1978"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23351","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.202177","article-title":"Cognitive reserve and network efficiency as compensatory mechanisms of the effect of aging on phonemic fluency","volume":"12","author":"Gonzalez-Burgos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aging"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3832","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhab052","article-title":"Cortical networks underpinning compensation of verbal fluency in Normal aging","volume":"31","author":"Gonzalez-Burgos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cerebral Cortex (New York, NY)"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-024-01328-4","article-title":"The effect of cognitive reserve on the cognitive connectome in healthy ageing","author":"Habich","year":"2024","journal-title":"GeroScience"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2014.07.019","article-title":"The architecture of the chess player\u2019s brain","volume":"62","author":"H\u00e4nggi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01359218","article-title":"Theories of chess skill","volume":"54","author":"Holding","year":"1992","journal-title":"Psychol. Res."},{"key":"ref42","volume-title":"Boston naming test","author":"Kaplan","year":"1983"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1037\/a0014499","article-title":"Playing chess unconsciously","volume":"35","author":"Kiesel","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"198701","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.87.198701","article-title":"Efficient behavior of small-world networks","volume":"87","author":"Latora","year":"2001","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2018.07.017","article-title":"Proposal for a hierarchical, multidimensional, and multivariate approach to investigate cognitive aging","volume":"71","author":"Machado","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Aging"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0178798","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0178798","article-title":"BRAPH: a graph theory software for the analysis of brain connectivity","volume":"12","author":"Mijalkov","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"644611","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2021.644611","article-title":"Functional connectivity and compensation of phonemic fluency in aging","volume":"13","author":"Mohanty","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"ref48","first-page":"311","article-title":"Frontal lobe function in chess players","volume":"50","author":"Nejati","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Med. Iran."},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3932(71)90067-4","article-title":"The assessment and analysis of handedness: the Edinburgh inventory","volume":"9","author":"Oldfield","year":"1971","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-3940(95)11985-6","article-title":"Non-dominant dorsal-prefrontal activation during chess problem solution evidenced by single photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT)","volume":"198","author":"Onofrj","year":"1995","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref21","volume-title":"R: a language and environment for statistical computing","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9280.00309","article-title":"Visual span in expert chess players: evidence from eye movements","volume":"12","author":"Reingold","year":"2001","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2009.10.003","article-title":"Complex network measures of brain connectivity: uses and interpretations","volume":"52","author":"Rubinov","year":"2010","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1080\/09541440340000501","article-title":"Visuospatial representations used by chess experts: a preliminary study","volume":"16","author":"Saariluoma","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1007\/s11682-018-0020-0","article-title":"Changed hub and functional connectivity patterns of the posterior fusiform gyrus in chess experts","volume":"14","author":"Song","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Imaging Behav."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.31887\/DCNS.2018.20.2\/osporns","article-title":"Graph theory methods: applications in brain networks","volume":"20","author":"Sporns","year":"2018","journal-title":"Dialogues Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2019.11.004","article-title":"Complexity in neuropsychological assessments of cognitive impairment: a network analysis approach","volume":"124","author":"Tosi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1348\/000712605X71407","article-title":"Planning abilities and chess: a comparison of chess and non-chess players on the tower of London task","volume":"97","author":"Unterrainer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.5406\/amerjpsyc.124.2.0213","article-title":"Revising superior planning performance in chess players: the impact of time restriction and motivation aspects","volume":"124","author":"Unterrainer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113454","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2021.113454","article-title":"Neurophysiological and autonomic responses of high and low level chess players during difficult and easy chess endgames - a quantitative EEG and HRV study","volume":"237","author":"Villafaina","year":"2021","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2018.10.017","article-title":"Electroencephalographic response of chess players in decision-making processes under time pressure","volume":"198","author":"Villafaina","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref61","volume-title":"Wechsler adult intelligence scale- administration and scoring manual","author":"Wechsler","year":""},{"key":"ref62","volume-title":"Wechsler memory scale - third edition technical manual","author":"Wechsler","year":""},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"676618","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2021.676618","article-title":"A graph theory approach to clarifying aging and disease related changes in cognitive networks","volume":"13","author":"Wright","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2024.1407583\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,18]],"date-time":"2024-09-18T12:37:24Z","timestamp":1726663044000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2024.1407583\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,17]]},"references-count":63,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2024.1407583"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2024.1407583","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,17]]},"article-number":"1407583"}}