{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T02:46:14Z","timestamp":1791513974482,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]],"date-time":"2025-03-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1742947200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>This study examines the role of societal, interpersonal, and individual factors in explaining Europeans\u2019 attitudes toward gender equality in sport and the role of interactions between gender, age, and social class.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>The empirical analysis uses survey data from residents in 27 European countries in 2022 (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u202f=\u202f19,396). Respondents\u2019 attitudes toward gender equality in sport are captured by two statements about evenly following female and male sport in the media and the inspirational potential of female role models among managers, athletes, officials, and coaches. Regression analyses are estimated with the attitude variables as outcomes. Societal (gender equality climate in country), interpersonal (sport participation), and individual factors (gender, age, social class; and their interactions) served as independent variables.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The results show that respondents have higher attitudes toward female role models than toward female sport in the media. A country\u2019s gender equality climate has a negative association with following female sport in the media, but a positive one with female role models. Sport participation is positively associated with female sport in the media. Women score higher on both attitude measures. Older individuals and those from lower social classes evenly follow female sport in the media. Interactions between gender, age, and social class also explain attitudes toward gender equality in sport.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>This study is innovative as it provides information about how the resident population thinks about gender equality in sport and which factors are relevant for higher or lower attitudes. The European-wide dataset is unique and allows a comprehensive analysis.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1529003","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]],"date-time":"2025-03-26T11:10:08Z","timestamp":1742987408000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Attitudes toward gender equality in sport among Europeans"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Pamela","family":"Wicker","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George B.","family":"Cunningham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1177\/1012690214548493","article-title":"Gender equality in sport leadership: from the Brighton declaration to the Sydney scoreboard","volume":"51","author":"Adriaanse","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Sport Sociol."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.70252\/SZZQ7147","article-title":"Cultural values and gender equity on national Olympic committee boards","volume":"10","author":"Ahn","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Exerc. Sci."},{"key":"ref3","volume-title":"The nature of prejudice","author":"Allport","year":"1954"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1038\/s44159-022-00136-x","article-title":"Benevolent and hostile sexism in a shifting global context","volume":"2","author":"Barreto","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1177\/0361684320977178","article-title":"Changes in gender stereotypes over time: a computational analysis","volume":"45","author":"Bhatia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychol. Women Q."},{"key":"ref6","volume-title":"Sports clubs in Germany: Results from the 8th wave of the sport development report: Sport development report for Germany 2020\u20132022 - part 1","author":"Breuer","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1111\/rode.12830","article-title":"Gender gap and access to finance: a cross-country analysis","volume":"26","author":"Chundakkadan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Dev. Econ."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1177\/21674795211003524","article-title":"One and done: the long eclipse of Women\u2019s televised sports, 1989\u20132019","volume":"9","author":"Cooky","year":"2021","journal-title":"Commun. Sport"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.riob.2011.09.004","article-title":"How social class shapes thoughts and actions in organizations","volume":"31","author":"C\u00f4t\u00e9","year":"2011","journal-title":"Res. Organ. Behav."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.2307\/1229039","article-title":"Mapping the margins: intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color","volume":"43","author":"Crenshaw","year":"1990","journal-title":"Stan. L. Rev."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-007-9312-3","article-title":"Creating and sustaining gender diversity in sport organizations","volume":"58","author":"Cunningham","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"ref12","volume-title":"Diversity and inclusion in sport organizations: A multilevel perspective","author":"Cunningham","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"684066","DOI":"10.3389\/fsoc.2021.684066","article-title":"Gender and racial Bias in sport organizations","volume":"6","author":"Cunningham","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Sociol."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106844","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2021.106844","article-title":"When virtual spaces meet the limitations of traditional sport: gender stereotyping in NBA2K","volume":"122","author":"Darvin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1783","DOI":"10.1080\/17430437.2019.1651018","article-title":"Gender equality, sport and the united Nation\u2019s system. A historical overview of the slow pace of progress","volume":"22","author":"de Soysa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sport Soc."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1123\/jsm.2021-0227","article-title":"Understanding the lack of diversity in sport consumer behavior research","volume":"36","author":"Delia","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Sport Manag."},{"key":"ref17","volume-title":"Eurobarometer 97.3 (2022)","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1177\/1012690220911842","article-title":"Women in sports leadership: a systematic narrative review","volume":"56","author":"Evans","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Sport Sociol."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1348456","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2024.1348456","article-title":"Assessing gender differences in food preferences and physical activity: a population-based survey","volume":"11","author":"Feraco","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Nutr."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-0297.2004.00235.x","article-title":"How important is methodology for the estimates of the determinants of happiness?","volume":"114","author":"Ferrer-i-Carbonell","year":"2004","journal-title":"Econ. J."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1123\/jsm.2015-0278","article-title":"Hiding in plain sight: the embedded nature of sexism in sport","volume":"30","author":"Fink","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sport Manag."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1111\/roie.12029","article-title":"Economic strain, education and attitudes towards foreigners in the European Union","volume":"21","author":"Gang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev. Int. Econ."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1027\/1864-1105\/a000385","article-title":"Music and sports as catalysts for intergroup harmony: what is more effective, and why?","volume":"36","author":"Gim","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. media Psychol."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-014-0360-1","article-title":"Psychological entitlement and ambivalent sexism: understanding the role of entitlement in predicting two forms of sexism","volume":"70","author":"Grubbs","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"ref25","volume-title":"Multivariate data analysis","author":"Hair","year":"2013"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1080\/19406940.2019.1680415","article-title":"Gender inclusivity in sport? From value, to values, to actions, to equality for Canadian athletes","volume":"12","author":"Harmon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Policy Politics"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1123\/jsm.2018-0331","article-title":"Sexism in professional sports: how women managers experience and survive sport organizational culture","volume":"34","author":"Hindman","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Sport Manag."},{"key":"ref28","volume-title":"Feminist theory: From margin to center","author":"Hooks","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref29","article-title":"Make this the season we end discriminatory sports coverage","author":"Isard","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1177\/0193723520962955","article-title":"Gender relations, gender equity, and community sports spaces","volume":"45","author":"Jeanes","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Sport Soc. Issues"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1123\/jsm.2021-0266","article-title":"Subtexts of research on diversity in sport organizations: queering intersectional perspectives","volume":"36","author":"Knoppers","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Sport Manag."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1080\/19406940.2021.1915848","article-title":"Discursive resistance to gender diversity in sport governance: sport as a unique field?","volume":"13","author":"Knoppers","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Policy Politics"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1177\/1012690216671019","article-title":"The gender gap in sport event attendance in Europe: the impact of macro-level gender equality","volume":"53","author":"Lagaert","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Sport Sociol."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315734651-2","article-title":"A framework to understand experiences of women coaches around the globe the ecological-intersectional model","volume-title":"Women in sports coaching","author":"LaVoi","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1111\/jasp.12247","article-title":"Imagine that: examining the influence of sport-related imagined contact on intergroup anxiety and sexual prejudice across cultures","volume":"44","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1123\/smej.2023-0009","article-title":"Women and men professors as role models and their effect on academics\u2019 career decisions","volume":"18","author":"Lesch","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sport Manag. Educ. J."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100808","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmph.2021.100808","article-title":"Operationalization of intersectionality in physical activity and sport research: a systematic scoping review","volume":"14","author":"Lim","year":"2021","journal-title":"SSM Popul. Health."},{"key":"ref38","first-page":"143","article-title":"England","volume-title":"Sport clubs in Europe","author":"Nichols","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1080\/14413523.2021.1896845","article-title":"From isomorphism to institutional work: advancing institutional theory in sport management research","volume":"24","author":"Nite","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sport Manag. Rev."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smr.2019.06.002","article-title":"Examining institutional work that perpetuates abuse in sport organizations","volume":"23","author":"Nite","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sport Manag. Rev."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1080\/17430437.2021.1961745","article-title":"Can overcoming issues of gender be an Olympic legacy (commentary): a need for comprehensive change","volume":"26","author":"Okada","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sport Soc."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1177\/1440783318791755","article-title":"Religion, religiosity and patriarchal gender beliefs: understanding the Australian experience","volume":"55","author":"Perales","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Sociol."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.90.5.751","article-title":"A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory","volume":"90","author":"Pettigrew","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1080\/01419870.2019.1640374","article-title":"Critical race theory and black feminist insights into \u2018race\u2019 and gender equality","volume":"43","author":"Rankin-Wright","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ethn. Racial Stud."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1205","DOI":"10.1007\/s00191-022-00780-9","article-title":"Gender inequality and the entrepreneurial gender gap: evidence from 97 countries (2006\u20132017)","volume":"32","author":"Rietveld","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Evol. Econ."},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smr.2019.03.001","article-title":"Organisational factors and non-accidental violence in sport: a systematic review","volume":"23","author":"Roberts","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sport Manag. Rev."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1123\/jsm.2021-0179","article-title":"Institutional theory in sport: a scoping review","volume":"36","author":"Robertson","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Sport Manag."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-17635-2_17","article-title":"Norway","volume-title":"Sport Clubs in Europe","author":"Seippel","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1002\/ejsp.1870","article-title":"On the nature of sexist ambivalence: profiling ambivalent and univalent sexists","volume":"42","author":"Sibley","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1506","DOI":"10.1080\/17430437.2020.1840554","article-title":"Where do they all come from? Youth, fitness gyms, sport clubs and social inequality","volume":"25","author":"Skauge","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sport Soc."},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/23750472.2023.2213702","article-title":"Quotas in sport management make gender equality initiatives more common: the case of Spain","author":"Valiente","year":"2023","journal-title":"Manag. Sport Leis."},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1060","DOI":"10.1177\/0146167218757455","article-title":"A comparison of social dominance theory and system justification: the role of social status in 19 nations","volume":"44","author":"Vargas-Salfate","year":"2018","journal-title":"Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1177\/13684302221075691","article-title":"Using sport media exposure to promote gender equality: counter-stereotypical gender perceptions and the 2019 FIFA Women\u2019s world cup","volume":"26","author":"Vezzali","year":"2022","journal-title":"Group Process. Intergr. Relat."},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smr.2010.06.003","article-title":"Hostile takeover or joint venture: connections between institutional theory and sport management research","volume":"14","author":"Washington","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sport Manag. Rev."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1236439","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1236439","article-title":"Gender stereotypes and their correlates: the moderating role of voluntary sports club membership","volume":"14","author":"Wicker","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1123\/jsm.2023-0162","article-title":"Factors affecting women sports officials\u2019 intention to leave across Europe","volume":"38","author":"Wicker","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Sport Manag."},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1080\/23750472.2016.1265461","article-title":"The inspirational effect of sporting achievements and potential role models in football: a gender-specific analysis","volume":"21","author":"Wicker","year":"2016","journal-title":"Manag. Sport Leis."},{"key":"ref58","article-title":"Global Gender Gap Report, 2021. World Economic Forum","year":"2021"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1529003\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]],"date-time":"2025-03-26T11:10:47Z","timestamp":1742987447000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1529003\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]]},"references-count":58,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1529003"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1529003","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]]},"article-number":"1529003"}}