{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T15:22:01Z","timestamp":1777735321433,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":125,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,16]],"date-time":"2025-10-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760572800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this conceptual analysis, the theoretical foundations of distraction are examined, with particular emphasis on its definitional ambiguity and the absence of systematic models. The dual system model of distraction is introduced, delineating two complementary mechanisms: the distraction capacity system, a limited unconscious mechanism that automatically resists task-irrelevant input, and the attention control system, a conscious mechanism that reorients focus when distraction exceeds capacity. The first aim is to situate distraction in relation to established attention theories, showing how filter, attenuation, and capacity models frame distraction only indirectly. A review of contemporary distraction-related accounts and findings, such as goal interference and resource availability models, is then provided to demonstrate the lack of a unified framework. On this basis, the dual system model is explained as accounting for inattentional blindness, inattentional deafness, the state of flow, and the transition from recognizing distraction to re-engaging with the primary task. The model\u2019s relevance for educational contexts is outlined, where technology-induced distractions present a pressing challenge for sustained attention. Finally, it is argued that the dual system model serves as an epistemic framework that integrates unconscious resistance and conscious control, thereby providing a conceptual foundation for future empirical research and applied interventions in distraction-prone environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1632165","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,16]],"date-time":"2025-10-16T05:32:22Z","timestamp":1760592742000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["The dual system model of distraction: explaining the cognitive mechanism of distraction"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Chenghao","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1177\/0959354318815766","article-title":"Multitasking as distraction: a conceptual analysis of media multitasking research","volume":"29","author":"Aagaard","year":"2019","journal-title":"Theory Psychol."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1177\/0047239517736876","article-title":"Digital distraction: shedding light on the 21st-century college classroom","volume":"46","author":"Aaron","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Educ. Technol. Syst."},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9280.01458","article-title":"Motion onset captures attention","volume":"14","author":"Abrams","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2022.06.005","article-title":"The brain in flow: a systematic review on the neural basis of the flow state","volume":"154","author":"Alameda","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1037\/a0021213","article-title":"Effect of music on reading comprehension of junior high school students","volume":"25","author":"Anderson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sch. Psychol. Q."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.12360","article-title":"The default network and self-generated thought: component processes, dynamic control, and clinical relevance","volume":"1316","author":"Andrews-Hanna","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3657","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-23890-7","article-title":"Predicting lapses of attention with sleep-like slow waves","volume":"12","author":"Andrillon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195134971.003.0016","volume-title":"Fractionating the central executive. Principles of frontal lobe function","author":"Baddeley","year":"2002"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn1201","article-title":"Working memory: looking back and looking forward","volume":"4","author":"Baddeley","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref10","first-page":"47","article-title":"Working memory","volume-title":"Psychology of learning and motivation","author":"Baddeley","year":"1974"},{"key":"ref11","first-page":"62","volume-title":"The cognitive neuroscience of self-regulation. Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications","author":"Banfield","year":"2004"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1037\/stl0000122","article-title":"Distracted students: a comparison of multiple types of distractions on learning in online lectures","volume":"4","author":"Blasiman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sch. Teach. Learn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogbrainres.2005.04.011","article-title":"Effects of mental fatigue on attention: an ERP study","volume":"25","author":"Boksem","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cogn. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2005.08.007","article-title":"Mental fatigue, motivation and action monitoring","volume":"72","author":"Boksem","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresrev.2008.07.001","article-title":"Mental fatigue: costs and benefits","volume":"59","author":"Boksem","year":"2008","journal-title":"Brain Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1080\/10790195.2020.1867671","article-title":"The what, why, and how of distractions from a self-regulated learning perspective","volume":"51","author":"Brady","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Coll. Read. Learn."},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.4018\/978-1-7998-9243-4.ch006","article-title":"Learning in the face of digital distractions: empowering students to practice self-regulated learning","volume-title":"Digital distractions in the college classroom","author":"Brady","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1037\/10037-000","volume-title":"Perception and communication","author":"Broadbent","year":"1958"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2013.06.022","article-title":"Background music as a risk factor for distraction among young-novice drivers","volume":"59","author":"Brodsky","year":"2013","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1440.011","article-title":"The brain's default network: anatomy, function, and relevance to disease","volume":"1124","author":"Buckner","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2014.02.004","article-title":"What else do college students \u201cdo\u201d while studying? An investigation of multitasking","volume":"75","author":"Calderwood","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1907229","article-title":"Some experiments on the recognition of speech, with one and with two ears","volume":"25","author":"Cherry","year":"1953","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecresq.2015.12.009","article-title":"Learning executive function and early mathematics: directions of causal relations","volume":"36","author":"Clements","year":"2016","journal-title":"Early Child Res. Q."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn755","article-title":"Control of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain","volume":"3","author":"Corbetta","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref25","volume-title":"Flow: The psychology of optimal experience","author":"Csikszentmihalyi","year":"1990"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2012.05.012","article-title":"Gorillas we have missed: sustained inattentional deafness for dynamic events","volume":"124","author":"Dalton","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"030573562311530","DOI":"10.1177\/03057356231153070","article-title":"The impact of background music on learners: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"51","author":"de la Mora Velasco","year":"2023","journal-title":"Psychol. Music"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-113011-143750","article-title":"Executive functions","volume":"64","author":"Diamond","year":"2013","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsc.2011.09.002","article-title":"The distracting effects of music on the cognitive test performance of creative and non-creative individuals","volume":"7","author":"Doyle","year":"2012","journal-title":"Think. Skills Creat."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-021-02052-2","article-title":"The role of attention control in complex real-world tasks","volume":"29","author":"Draheim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1848","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797613479386","article-title":"The invisible gorilla strikes again: sustained inattentional blindness in expert observers","volume":"24","author":"Drew","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.3758\/bf03194948","article-title":"The irrelevant-speech effect and children: theoretical implications of developmental change","volume":"30","author":"Elliott","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8721.00160","article-title":"Working memory capacity as executive attention","volume":"11","author":"Engle","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref35","volume-title":"Indistractable: How to control your attention and choose your life","author":"Eyal","year":"2019"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1080\/02699939208409696","article-title":"Anxiety and performance: the processing efficiency theory","volume":"6","author":"Eysenck","year":"1992","journal-title":"Cogn. Emot."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1037\/1528-3542.7.2.336","article-title":"Anxiety and cognitive performance: attentional control theory","volume":"7","author":"Eysenck","year":"2007","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e48073","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0048073","article-title":"Mental fatigue affects visual selective attention","volume":"7","author":"Faber","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100844","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iheduc.2021.100844","article-title":"Initiating and maintaining student-instructor rapport in online classes","volume":"53","author":"Flanigan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Internet High. Educ."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4018\/978-1-7998-9243-4","volume-title":"Digital distractions in the college classroom","author":"Flanigan","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.24191\/ajue.v17i1.12622","article-title":"Smartphone usage among university students","volume":"7","author":"Fook","year":"2021","journal-title":"Asian J. Univ. Educ."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2013.00283","article-title":"Distraction and mind-wandering under load [Mini review]","volume":"4","author":"Forster","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.3200\/JEXE.76.1.93-112","article-title":"Learning in the face of temptation: the case of motivational interference","volume":"76","author":"Fries","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Exp. Educ."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1080\/00140130210121932","article-title":"Music is as distracting as noise: the differential distraction of background music and noise on the cognitive test performance of introverts and extraverts","volume":"45","author":"Furnham","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ergonomics"},{"key":"ref46","volume-title":"The distracted mind: Ancient brains in a high-tech world","author":"Gazzaley","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9149","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-022-11570-y","article-title":"Digital distraction levels of university students in emergency remote teaching","volume":"28","author":"G\u00f6l","year":"2023","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103417","article-title":"Do you listen to music while studying? A portrait of how people use music to optimize their cognitive performance","volume":"220","author":"Goltz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Psychol."},{"key":"ref49","first-page":"14","article-title":"Technology distraction in the learning environment","volume":"4","author":"Griffin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Technology"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2014.10.022","article-title":"In-class distractions: the role of Facebook and the primary learning task","volume":"55","author":"Gupta","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Human Behav."},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1080\/1750984X.2021.1929402","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of the relationship between flow states and performance","volume":"16","author":"Harris","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Sport Exerc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1038\/72999","article-title":"The neural mechanisms of top-down attentional control","volume":"3","author":"Hopfinger","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1037\/a0029064","article-title":"Cognitive control of auditory distraction: impact of task difficulty, foreknowledge, and working memory capacity supports duplex-mechanism account","volume":"39","author":"Hughes","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform."},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.33.6.1050","article-title":"Disruption of short-term memory by changing and deviant sounds: support for a duplex-mechanism account of auditory distraction","volume":"33","author":"Hughes","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.1638","article-title":"Did you see the unicycling clown? Inattentional blindness while walking and talking on a cell phone","volume":"24","author":"Hyman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref56","volume-title":"The principles of psychology","author":"James","year":"1890"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1270642","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1270642","article-title":"Relationship between learning flow and academic performance among students: a systematic evaluation and meta-analysis [systematic review]","volume":"14","author":"Jinmin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4135\/9781483328768","volume-title":"Attention: Theory and practice","author":"Johnson","year":"2004"},{"key":"ref59","volume-title":"Attention and effort","author":"Kahneman","year":"1973"},{"key":"ref60","article-title":"Perception","volume-title":"Principles of neural science","author":"Kandel","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref9003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2007.01948.x","article-title":"For whom the mind wanders, and when: An experience-sampling study of working memory and executive control in daily life","volume":"18","author":"Kane","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1247","DOI":"10.3758\/s13421-021-01156-3","article-title":"Individual differences in task-unrelated thought in university classrooms","volume":"49","author":"Kane","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.132.1.47","article-title":"Working-memory capacity and the control of attention: the contributions of goal neglect, response competition, and task set to Stroop interference","volume":"132","author":"Kane","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Gen."},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2013.00578","article-title":"Does noise affect learning? A short review on noise effects on cognitive performance in children [mini review]","volume":"4","author":"Klatte","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1007\/s00426-014-0552-x","article-title":"Inattentional deafness in music","volume":"78","author":"Koreimann","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol. Res."},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.3390\/app15010273","article-title":"EEG-based measurement for detecting distraction in coal mine workers","volume":"15","author":"Kuang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.133.3.339","article-title":"Load theory of selective attention and cognitive control","volume":"133","author":"Lavie","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Gen."},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.4018\/978-1-7998-9243-4.ch005","article-title":"The role of self-regulation in experiences of digital distraction in college classrooms","volume-title":"Digital distractions in the college classroom","author":"Le Roux","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3147381","article-title":"Using an online learning platform to show students\u2019 achievements and attention in the video lecture and online practice learning environments","volume":"25","author":"Lin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Educ. Technol. Soc."},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2093","DOI":"10.1080\/17470218.2015.1136657","article-title":"Retiring the central executive","volume":"69","author":"Logie","year":"2016","journal-title":"Q. J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.3758\/PBR.16.1.139","article-title":"What causes auditory distraction?","volume":"16","author":"Macken","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1080\/01411920802042911","article-title":"Boredom in the lecture theatre: an investigation into the contributors, moderators and outcomes of boredom amongst university students","volume":"35","author":"Mann","year":"2009","journal-title":"Br. Educ. Res. J."},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-025-10550-6","article-title":"Digital distractions in education: a systematic review of research on causes, consequences and prevention strategies","author":"Martin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Technol. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s41239-018-0096-z","article-title":"Efficient, helpful, or distracting? A literature review of media multitasking in relation to academic performance","volume":"15","author":"May","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1080\/25742442.2022.2064692","article-title":"The irrelevant sound effect on serial recall is independent of age and inhibitory control","volume":"5","author":"Meinhardt-Injac","year":"2022","journal-title":"Auditory Percept. Cogn."},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-021-01152-w","article-title":"The role of PFC networks in cognitive control and executive function","volume":"47","author":"Menon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.24.1.167","article-title":"An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function","volume":"24","author":"Miller","year":"2001","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1037\/h0032198","article-title":"Cognitive and attentional mechanisms in delay of gratification","volume":"21","author":"Mischel","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref9002","first-page":"225","article-title":"Self-regulation and multiple deadline goals","author":"Mitchell","year":"2008","journal-title":"In Work Motivation"},{"key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1006\/cogp.1999.0734","article-title":"The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex \u201cfrontal lobe\u201d tasks: a latent variable analysis","volume":"41","author":"Miyake","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1080\/10790195.2015.1021880","article-title":"Connected yet distracted: multitasking among college students","volume":"45","author":"Mokhtari","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Coll. Read. Learn."},{"key":"ref80","volume-title":"Encyclopedia of cognitive science","author":"Nadel","year":"2003"},{"key":"ref81","first-page":"105","volume-title":"The concept of flow. Handbook of positive psychology","author":"Nakamura","year":"2002"},{"key":"ref82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4757-0629-1_1","article-title":"Attention to action","volume-title":"Consciousness and self-regulation","author":"Norman","year":"1986"},{"key":"ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.5334\/joc.58","article-title":"Working memory and attention - a conceptual analysis and review","volume":"2","author":"Oberauer","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Cogn."},{"key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.1037\/rev0000514","article-title":"The meaning of attention control","volume":"131","author":"Oberauer","year":"2024","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref85","first-page":"443","article-title":"The orienting response, attention, and learning: an information-processing perspective","volume-title":"The orienting reflex in humans","author":"\u00d6hman","year":"1979"},{"key":"ref86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1037\/stl0000060","article-title":"The mind that wanders: challenges and potential benefits of mind wandering in education","volume":"2","author":"Pachai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Schol. Teach. Learn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-062111-150525","article-title":"The attention system of the human brain: 20 years after","volume":"35","author":"Petersen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref88","volume-title":"Attention and cognitive control","author":"Posner","year":"2004"},{"key":"ref89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1177\/0265407512453827","article-title":"Can you connect with me now? How the presence of mobile communication technology influences face-to-face conversation quality","volume":"30","author":"Przybylski","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Soc. Pers. Relat."},{"key":"ref90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2009.01.012","article-title":"Effects of anxiety and attention control on processing pictorial and linguistic emotional information","volume":"47","author":"Reinholdt-Dunne","year":"2009","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2013.05.001","article-title":"Everyday attention: mind wandering and computer use during lectures","volume":"68","author":"Risko","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci14030193","article-title":"A novel EEG-based assessment of distraction in simulated driving under different road and traffic conditions","volume":"14","author":"Ronca","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref93","article-title":"Continuous partial attention teaching and learning in the age of interruption","volume":"1","author":"Rose","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antistasis"},{"key":"ref94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-008-1642-z","article-title":"The prefrontal cortex and the executive control of attention","volume":"192","author":"Rossi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2019.05.016","article-title":"Fear of missing out is associated with disrupted activities from receiving smartphone notifications and surface learning in college students","volume":"140","author":"Rozgonjuk","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000296","article-title":"Reward-driven distraction: a meta-analysis","volume":"146","author":"Rusz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5371(82)90521-7","article-title":"Disruption of short-term memory by unattended speech: implications for the structure of working memory","volume":"21","author":"Salame","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Verbal Learn. Verbal Behav."},{"key":"ref98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"956","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.32.6.956","article-title":"The motivating effects of distraction on task performance","volume":"32","author":"Sanders","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4329.12206","article-title":"Distracted learning: big problem and golden opportunity","volume":"19","author":"Schmidt","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Educ."},{"key":"ref100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-9094-9_20","article-title":"Individual and situational factors related to the experience of flow in adolescence","volume-title":"Applications of flow in human development and education: The collected works of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi","author":"Schmidt","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.84.1.1","article-title":"Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention","volume":"84","author":"Schneider","year":"1977","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2022","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.867978","article-title":"Restoration of attention by rest in a multitasking world: theory, methodology, and empirical evidence [systematic review]","volume":"13","author":"Schumann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1108\/9781786352217","volume-title":"Traffic safety and human behavior","author":"Shinar","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691616650647","article-title":"Working memory capacity and fluid intelligence: maintenance and disengagement","volume":"11","author":"Shipstead","year":"2016","journal-title":"Perspect. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1068\/p281059","article-title":"Gorillas in our midst: sustained inattentional blindness for dynamic events","volume":"28","author":"Simons","year":"1999","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"ref106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"946","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.132.6.946","article-title":"The restless mind","volume":"132","author":"Smallwood","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref107","volume-title":"What is distraction","author":"Smiley","year":"2005"},{"key":"ref108","volume-title":"Taking care of youth and the generations","author":"Stiegler","year":"2010"},{"key":"ref109","volume-title":"Driver distraction, aggression, and fatigue: A synthesis of the literature and guidelines for Michigan planning","author":"Streff","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1388","DOI":"10.1080\/02699931.2015.1064363","article-title":"A self-regulatory approach to understanding boredom proneness","volume":"30","author":"Struk","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cognit. Emot."},{"key":"ref111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogsys.2021.03.001","article-title":"The resource-availability model of distraction and mind-wandering","volume":"68","author":"Taatgen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cogn. Syst. Res."},{"key":"ref112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2014.11.009","article-title":"Cyber-slacking in the classroom: potential for digital distraction in the new age","volume":"82","author":"Taneja","year":"2015","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.bmb.a070274","article-title":"Selective attention in man","volume":"20","author":"Treisman","year":"1964","journal-title":"Br. Med. Bull."},{"key":"ref114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1186\/s41235-017-0070-7","article-title":"Attentional disengagements in educational contexts: a diary investigation of everyday mind-wandering and distraction","volume":"2","author":"Unsworth","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cogn. Res. Princ. Implic."},{"key":"ref115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2010.02.001","article-title":"Working memory capacity: attention control, secondary memory, or both? A direct test of the dual-component model","volume":"62","author":"Unsworth","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Mem. Lang."},{"key":"ref116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appdev.2020.101196","article-title":"Executive functioning as a predictor of children\u2019s mathematics, reading and writing","volume":"70","author":"Valcan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Appl. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1177\/1073858413494269","article-title":"Dorsal and ventral attention systems: distinct neural circuits but collaborative roles","volume":"20","author":"Vossel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuroscientist"},{"key":"ref118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/1483531","article-title":"Comprehensively summarizing what distracts students from online learning: a literature review","volume":"2022","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hum. Behav. Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2024.108258","article-title":"Social media distractions alter behavioral and neural patterns to global-local attention: the moderation effect of fear of missing out","volume":"157","author":"Wei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Human Behav."},{"key":"ref120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1727","article-title":"The neural bases of momentary lapses in attention","volume":"9","author":"Weissman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102098","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cedpsych.2022.102098","article-title":"Task-unrelated thought during educational activities: a meta-analysis of its occurrence and relationship with learning","volume":"71","author":"Wong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Contemp. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref122","volume-title":"Cueing effect in multimedia learning: A meta-analysis","author":"Xie","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref9001","first-page":"379","article-title":"Driver distraction: A review of the literature","volume":"2007","author":"Young","year":"2007","journal-title":"Distracted driving"},{"key":"ref123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"881074","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.881074","article-title":"Associations between online learning, smartphone addiction problems, and psychological symptoms in Chinese college students after the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"10","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012109890-2\/50031-7","article-title":"Attaining self-regulation: a social cognitive perspective","volume-title":"Handbook of self-regulation","author":"Zimmerman","year":"2000"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1632165\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,16]],"date-time":"2025-10-16T05:32:28Z","timestamp":1760592748000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1632165\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,16]]},"references-count":125,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1632165"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1632165","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,16]]},"article-number":"1632165"}}