{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]],"date-time":"2026-03-12T17:06:09Z","timestamp":1773335169492,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]],"date-time":"2026-03-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773273600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Social cognition (SC) allows individuals to perceive, interpret, and react to intentions and behaviors of others. Forensic psychiatry patients show impaired SC, leading to emergence of violent behaviors. This impairment may differ according to patients\u2019 intelligence quotient and psychiatric diagnosis (schizophrenia spectrum vs. personality disorders).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Aims<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The study investigated emotional SC and cognitive SC in male forensic inpatients, exploring demographic, criminological and clinical determinants.\n                      <jats:italic>Methods<\/jats:italic>\n                      : We retrospectively retrieved and analyzed data in a preliminary sample of 75 offenders following court-ordered psychiatric treatment in Switzerland. Emotional SC was assessed using a facial emotions\u2019 recognition task and cognitive SC was assessed with theory of mind comics picture stories. Multiple logistic regression models were applied to identify protective and risk factors of cognitive SC and emotional SC.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>39.2% of the offenders presented cognitive SC and 25.3% emotional SC impairment. Higher intelligence quotient was the unique 10-fold protective factor for cognitive SC, independently of psychiatric diagnoses and criminal history. In contrast, for emotional SC, average intelligence and PD disorder acted as protective factors compared to schizophrenia and intellectual deficiency, while foreign nationality acted as risk factor. Notably, neither recidivism nor the violent or multiple nature of crimes were related to SC.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Clinicians should consider patients\u2019 level of intelligence and include differential emotional and cognitive SC assessments, when referring mentally disordered offenders for SC training to improve their prosocial skills.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1731232","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]],"date-time":"2026-03-12T05:28:28Z","timestamp":1773293308000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Impact of intelligence on social cognition in mentally disordered offenders: preliminary evidence in schizophrenia and personality disorders"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Kyriakos","family":"Ioannidis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Institutional Measures, Medical Direction, Geneva University Hospitals","place":["Geneva, Switzerland"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lena","family":"Magnenat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Institutional Measures, Medical Direction, Geneva University Hospitals","place":["Geneva, Switzerland"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fran\u00e7ois R.","family":"Herrmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation and Geriatrics, Geneva University Hospitals and University of Geneva","place":["Th\u00f4nex, Switzerland"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Younes","family":"Boulaguiem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, University of Geneva","place":["Geneva, Switzerland"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Laila","family":"Espinosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Institutional Measures, Medical Direction, Geneva University Hospitals","place":["Geneva, Switzerland"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Panteleimon","family":"Giannakopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, University of Geneva","place":["Geneva, Switzerland"]},{"name":"Health Office, Department of Health and Transport, State of Geneva","place":["Geneva, Switzerland"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kerstin","family":"Weber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Institutional Measures, Medical Direction, Geneva University Hospitals","place":["Geneva, Switzerland"]},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, University of Geneva","place":["Geneva, Switzerland"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref9001","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1002\/CBM.2228","article-title":"Mistakes in interpersonal perceptions: Social cognition in aggressive forensic psychiatry patients","volume":"32","author":"Battaglia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crim Behav Ment Health"},{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-64150-2.00022-8","article-title":"Social cognition","volume":"173","author":"Beaudoin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Handb. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref2","volume-title":"Mini-SEA: \u00e9valuation de la d\u00e9mence fronto-temporale","author":"Bertoux","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/j63qd","article-title":"Theory of mind and the agreeableness-antagonism dimension: differential associations with callousness, aggression, and manipulativeness","author":"Blain","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2541","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291721003718","article-title":"A meta-analysis of theory of mind and \u201cmentalization\u201d in borderline personality disorder: a true neuro-social-cognitive or meta-social-cognitive impairment?","volume":"51","author":"Bora","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2017.01.014","article-title":"The feasibility and clinical benefits of improving facial affect recognition impairments in schizophrenia: systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"188","author":"Bordon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1037\/PER0000473","article-title":"Cognitive mechanisms influencing facial emotion processing in psychopathy and externalizing","volume":"12","author":"Brennan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Personal. Disord. Theory Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/S0920-9964(02)00162-7","article-title":"Theory of mind and the role of IQ in chronic disorganized schizophrenia","volume":"60","author":"Br\u00fcne","year":"2003","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref9002","first-page":"761","article-title":"Facial emotion recognition in people with schizophrenia and a history of violence: a mediation analysis.","author":"Bulgari","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1016076405731","article-title":"Theory of mind and social competence in individuals with a mental handicap","volume":"14","author":"Charman","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Dev. Phys. Disabil."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1080\/10409289.2018.1475820","article-title":"Social cognition, language, and prosocial behaviors: a multitrait mixed-methods study in early childhood","volume":"29","author":"Conte","year":"2018","journal-title":"Early Educ. Dev."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1177\/1534582304267187","article-title":"The functional architecture of human empathy","volume":"3","author":"Decety","year":"2004","journal-title":"Behav. Cogn. Neurosci. Rev."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1751-0759-1-22","article-title":"The empathic brain and its dysfunction in psychiatric populations: implications for intervention across different clinical conditions","volume":"1","author":"Decety","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biopsychosoc Med"},{"key":"ref9003","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1080\/21507740.2015.1047055","article-title":"Empathy, justice, and moral behavior","volume":"6","author":"Decety","year":"2015","journal-title":"AJOB Neurosci"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2012.12.015","article-title":"Facial emotion recognition in patients with violent schizophrenia","volume":"144","author":"Demirbuga","year":"2013","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref9004","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-843X.106.1.37","article-title":"Reactive and proactive aggression in school children and psychiatrically impaired chronically assaultive youth","volume":"106","author":"Dodge","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Abnorm Psychol"},{"key":"ref9005","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/J.PSYCHRES.2018.12.087","article-title":"Large social cognitive impairments characterize homicide offenders with schizophrenia","volume":"272","author":"Engelstad","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1016\/J.PAID.2010.04.009","article-title":"Associations of trait and ability emotional intelligence with performance on theory of mind tasks in an adult sample","volume":"49","author":"Ferguson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1111\/SJOP.12732","article-title":"An exploration of theory of mind performance among men convicted of rape","volume":"62","author":"Friestad","year":"2021","journal-title":"Scand. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"R724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2007.05.068","article-title":"Social cognition in humans","volume":"17","author":"Frith","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/FPSYG.2018.00724","article-title":"The relation between emotion understanding and theory of mind in children aged 3 to 8: the key role of language","volume":"9","author":"Grazzani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1038\/NRN4005","article-title":"Social cognition in schizophrenia","volume":"16","author":"Green","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2018.06.017","article-title":"Social cognitive impairments in individuals with schizophrenia vary in severity","volume":"104","author":"Hajd\u00fak","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1097\/YCO.0000000000000026","article-title":"The social-cognitive basis of personality disorders","volume":"27","author":"Herpertz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1037\/A0023463","article-title":"Internal representations reveal cultural diversity in expectations of facial expressions of emotion","volume":"141","author":"Jack","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Gen."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"826406","DOI":"10.3389\/FPSYT.2022.826406","article-title":"High security settings in Flanders: an analysis of discharged and long-term forensic psychiatric patients","volume":"13","author":"Jeandarme","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44175","DOI":"10.31083\/AP44175","article-title":"The association between theory of mind, psychopathic traits, borderline personality traits, and severity of substance use disorder in women: a comparative analysis","volume":"26","author":"Karabulut","year":"2025","journal-title":"Alpha psychiatry"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1186\/S12991-023-00461-2","article-title":"Autism and intention attribution test: a non-verbal evaluation with comic strips","volume":"22","author":"Le Donne","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. General Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2014.09.009","article-title":"Subjective experience of emotions and emotional empathy in paranoid schizophrenia","volume":"220","author":"Lehmann","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref9006","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1080\/09540261.2023.2287095","article-title":"Personality disorders and schizophrenia spectrum disorders in the Italian forensic psychiatric population: clinical features, pattern of violence and treatment","volume":"36","author":"Margari","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int Rev Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2007.08.003","article-title":"Deficits in facial affect recognition among antisocial populations: a meta-analysis","volume":"32","author":"Marsh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1159\/000442412","article-title":"Assessment of social cognition and theory of mind: initial validation of the Geneva social cognition scale","volume":"74","author":"Martory","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Neurol."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1002\/cbm.281","article-title":"Theory of mind in a sample of men with schizophrenia detained in a special hospital: its relationship to symptom profiles and neuropsychological tests","volume":"8","author":"Murphy","year":"1998","journal-title":"Crim. Behav. Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1080\/13546800444000182","article-title":"Theory of mind in Asperger\u2019s syndrome, schizophrenia and personality disordered forensic patients","volume":"11","author":"Murphy","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychiatry"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2018.08.049","article-title":"Theory of mind disturbances in borderline personality disorder: a meta-analysis","volume":"270","author":"N\u00e9meth","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1002\/PER.672","article-title":"Agreeableness is related to social-cognitive, but not social-perceptual, theory of mind","volume":"22","author":"Nettle","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Personal."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1186\/S12888-015-0548-0","article-title":"Prospective cohort study of the relationship between neuro-cognition, social cognition and violence in forensic patients with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder","volume":"15","author":"O\u2019Reilly","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref9007","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102451","DOI":"10.1016\/J.JCRIMJUS.2025.102451","article-title":"Reading the mind in the dark: Theory of mind and dark personality as predictors of criminal behavior and recidivism","volume":"99","author":"Opri\u0219","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Crim Justice"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1093\/SCHBUL\/SBT081","article-title":"The social cognition psychometric evaluation study: results of the expert survey and RAND panel","volume":"40","author":"Pinkham","year":"2014","journal-title":"Schizophr. Bull."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1111\/ADB.12070","article-title":"Impaired emotional empathy and related social network deficits in cocaine users","volume":"19","author":"Preller","year":"2014","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1037\/NEU0000817","article-title":"Does culture shape our understanding of others\u2019 thoughts and emotions? An investigation across 12 countries","volume":"36","author":"Quesque","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/S0920-9964(97)00025-X","article-title":"Attribution of intentions to others in people with schizophrenia: a non- verbal exploration with comic strips","volume":"25","author":"Sarfati","year":"1997","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1229","DOI":"10.1093\/SCHBUL\/SBX012","article-title":"Neural mechanisms underlying affective theory of mind in violent antisocial personality disorder and\/or schizophrenia","volume":"43","author":"Schiffer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Schizophr. Bull."},{"key":"ref9008","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1007\/S00406-013-0440-1","article-title":"Investigation of the hostile attribution bias toward ambiguous facial cues in antisocial violent offenders","volume":"264","author":"Sch\u00f6nenberg","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1037\/T68976-000","article-title":"Schultz test of emotion processing--preliminary version","volume":"38","author":"Schultz","year":"2018","journal-title":"PsycTESTS Dataset"},{"key":"ref9009","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1037\/BUL0000303","article-title":"Toward a hierarchical model of social cognition: A neuroimaging meta-analysis and integrative review of empathy and theory of mind","volume":"147","author":"Schurz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychol Bull"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.3390\/HEALTHCARE12010089\/S1","article-title":"Empathy and violence in schizophrenia and antisocial personality disorder","volume":"12","author":"Tasios","year":"2024","journal-title":"Healthcare (Switzerland)"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2007.07.001","article-title":"Theory of mind \u201cemotion\u201d, developmental characteristics and social understanding in children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities","volume":"29","author":"Thirion-Marissiaux","year":"2008","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pscychresns.2016.01.010","article-title":"Fronto-temporal alterations and affect regulation in methamphetamine dependence with and without a history of psychosis","volume":"248","author":"Uhlmann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1093\/SCHBUL\/SBAA034","article-title":"Social cognition and schizophrenia: unresolved issues and new challenges in a maturing field of research","volume":"46","author":"Vaskinn","year":"2020","journal-title":"Schizophr. Bull."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1222337","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2023.1222337","article-title":"Court-ordered inpatient psychiatric care in Switzerland: determinants of length of stay and treatment outcome","volume":"14","author":"Weber","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/S40359-017-0186-Z","article-title":"In your face: the biased judgement of fear-anger expressions in violent offenders","volume":"5","author":"Wegrzyn","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMC Psychol"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1111\/J.1467-8624.2004.00691.X","article-title":"Scaling of theory-of-mind tasks","volume":"75","author":"Wellman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1037\/BUL0000101","article-title":"Interpersonal dysfunction in personality disorders: a meta-analytic review","volume":"143","author":"Wilson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1038\/S41598-017-00745-0","article-title":"Social cognition in aggressive offenders: impaired empathy, but intact theory of mind","volume":"7","author":"Winter","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1037\/XHP0000114","article-title":"Cultural similarities and differences in perceiving and recognizing facial expressions of basic emotions","volume":"42","author":"Yan","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105481","DOI":"10.1016\/J.NEUBIOREV.2023.105481","article-title":"Measures of individual differences in adult theory of mind: a systematic review","volume":"157","author":"Yeung","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100400","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scog.2025.100400","article-title":"Call to action on social cognition measures in clinical research","volume":"43","author":"Ziermans","year":"2026","journal-title":"Schizophr Res Cogn"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1731232\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]],"date-time":"2026-03-12T05:28:29Z","timestamp":1773293309000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1731232\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]]},"references-count":58,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1731232"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1731232","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]]},"article-number":"1731232"}}