{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T10:48:22Z","timestamp":1772621302038,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772582400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Empathy is a core neurobiological capacity that enables humans to perceive, understand, and respond to others\u2019 experiences, yet its deliberate modulation as a therapeutic target is still in its early stages of scientific development. This manuscript presents a hybrid narrative\u2013scoping review synthesizing evidence across pharmacological, neurostimulation, and behavioral approaches aimed at enhancing or restoring empathic functioning. A structured literature search covering 2014\u20132025 was conducted across PubMed, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Scopus, with emphasis on post-2020 research. Evidence was organized using an author-defined tiered synthesis framework, intended to support integrative interpretation rather than formal evidence grading. Across modalities, empathy can be modulated, but observed effect sizes are typically small to moderate, heterogeneous, and frequently transient. Pharmacological approaches such as intranasal oxytocin demonstrate modest, context-dependent effects (\n                    <jats:italic>d<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u202f=\u202f0.24, 95% CI: 0.02\u20130.46), while MDMA-assisted therapy yields larger but highly context-restricted benefits (\n                    <jats:italic>d<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u202f\u2248\u202f0.91) in trauma-focused psychotherapy and faces unresolved regulatory barriers. Neurostimulation techniques, including transcranial magnetic stimulation (\n                    <jats:italic>d<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u202f\u2248\u202f0.18\u20130.20), provide causal insights into empathy-related circuits but show limited durability of behavioral effects. Behavioral interventions\u2014particularly mindfulness-based programs (\n                    <jats:italic>d<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u202f=\u202f0.37, 95% CI: 0.16\u20130.58 for programs &amp;gt;24\u202fh) and compassion-focused programs\u2014exhibit the greatest scalability and sustainability. Overall, empathy represents a scientifically promising yet clinically constrained therapeutic target. Reliable translation will require larger trials, standardized and ecologically valid outcome measures, and careful integration of neurobiological and psychosocial frameworks.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1762816","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T05:42:48Z","timestamp":1772602968000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Therapeutic modulation of empathy: pharmacological, neurostimulation, and behavioral approaches"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Sarfaraz K.","family":"Niazi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Illinois","place":["Chicago, IL, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105862","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2024.105862","article-title":"Neuromodulation and meditation: a review and synthesis toward promoting well-being and understanding consciousness and brain","volume":"166","author":"Abellaneda-P\u00e9rez","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43316","DOI":"10.1038\/srep43316","article-title":"Insula and somatosensory cortical myelination and iron markers underlie individual differences in empathy","volume":"7","author":"Allen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1186\/s12909-025-06237-2","article-title":"The role of training and education for enhancing empathy among healthcare students: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials","volume":"25","author":"Ara\u00fajo","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMC Med. Educ."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1805","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2020.10.007","article-title":"Sonication of the anterior thalamus with MRI-guided transcranial focused ultrasound alters pain thresholds in healthy adults","volume":"13","author":"Badran","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1080\/17470919.2021.1879203","article-title":"Transcranial direct current stimulation for empathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"16","author":"Bahji","year":"2021","journal-title":"Soc. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e258","DOI":"10.1038\/tp.2013.34","article-title":"Sniffing around oxytocin: review and meta-analyses of trials in healthy and clinical groups with implications for pharmacotherapy","volume":"3","author":"Bakermans-Kranenburg","year":"2013","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e70372","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.70372","article-title":"Loving-kindness meditation: systematic review of neuroimaging correlates in long-term practitioners and clinical implications","volume":"15","author":"Bashir","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Behav."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(21)00170-X","article-title":"Effectiveness of psychological interventions in prison to reduce recidivism: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials","volume":"8","author":"Beaudry","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-025-06543-1","article-title":"Mind-body intervention for post-traumatic stress disorder in adolescents: a systematic review and network meta-analysis","volume":"25","author":"Bianjiang","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2024.01.003","article-title":"Neural correlates of empathy across species: evolutionary insights","volume":"28","author":"Brooker","year":"2024","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1031","DOI":"10.3390\/bs15081031","article-title":"The effectiveness of compassion-focused therapy for the three flows of compassion, self-criticism, and shame in clinical populations: a systematic review","volume":"15","author":"Brown","year":"2025","journal-title":"Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108063","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pec.2023.108063","article-title":"The current state of empathy, compassion and person-centred communication training in healthcare: an umbrella review","volume":"119","author":"Byrne","year":"2024","journal-title":"Patient Educ. Couns."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2613","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines12112613","article-title":"Neurobiological changes induced by mindfulness and meditation: a systematic review","volume":"12","author":"Calderone","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomedicine"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1089\/aut.2023.0122","article-title":"Self-set goals: autistic adults facilitating their self-determination through digitally mediated social stories","volume":"7","author":"Camilleri","year":"2025","journal-title":"Autism Adulthood"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1515\/revneuro-2020-0120","article-title":"The influence of rs53576 polymorphism in the oxytocin receptor gene on empathy by subtype and ethnicity: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"33","author":"Chander","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2315","DOI":"10.1177\/13623613251316534","article-title":"Do you feel me? Autism, empathic accuracy and the double empathy problem","volume":"29","author":"Cheang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Autism"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107858","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2021.107858","article-title":"Disruption on right temporoparietal junction with transcranial magnetic stimulation affects moral judgment","volume":"157","author":"Chou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s12991-022-00387-1","article-title":"Emotional blunting in patients with depression. Part I: clinical characteristics","volume":"21","author":"Christensen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. General Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2014.09.001","article-title":"Empathy: gender effects in brain and behavior","author":"Christov-Moore","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105000","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nedt.2021.105000","article-title":"Effectiveness of simulation-based interventions at improving empathy among healthcare students","volume":"104","author":"Chua","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nurse Educ. Today"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.13968","article-title":"The state of evidence for social and emotional learning: a contemporary meta-analysis","volume":"94","author":"Cipriano","year":"2023","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1683","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.01683","article-title":"Mindfulness, compassion, and self-compassion among health care professionals","volume":"11","author":"Conversano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2243","DOI":"10.1007\/s12671-020-01446-6","article-title":"Mindfulness and empathy among counseling and psychotherapy professionals","volume":"11","author":"Cooper","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mindfulness"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3315","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-07365-3","article-title":"The role of the anterior insula during targeted helping behavior in male rats","volume":"12","author":"Cox","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2555","article-title":"How do you feel\u2014now? The anterior insula and human awareness","volume":"10","author":"Craig","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20150077","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2015.0077","article-title":"Empathy as a driver of prosocial behaviour: highly conserved neurobehavioural mechanisms across species","volume":"371","author":"Decety","year":"2016","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1007\/s10459-022-10172-6","article-title":"Empathy across cultures\u2014one size does not fit all","volume":"28","author":"Eichbaum","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Health Sci. Educ."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"nsae080","DOI":"10.1093\/scan\/nsae080","article-title":"Neural empathy mechanisms are shared for physical and social pain, and increase from adolescence to older adulthood","volume":"19","author":"Ferguson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1038\/s44220-023-00081-1","article-title":"Systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials assessing mindfulness-based programs for mental health promotion","volume":"1","author":"Galante","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref30","volume-title":"HelpUS: pioneering focused ultrasounds as a new non-invasive deep brain stimulation for causal investigation of empathy","author":"Gazzola","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0203886","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0203886","article-title":"Elevated empathy in adults following childhood trauma","volume":"13","author":"Greenberg","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref32","author":"Haynes","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.00721","article-title":"The 'real-world approach' and its problems: a critique of the term ecological validity","volume":"11","author":"Holleman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"992575","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.992575","article-title":"Effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions on empathy: a meta-analysis","volume":"13","author":"Hu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1091605","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1091605","article-title":"Effect of empathy training on the empathy level of healthcare providers in Ethiopia","volume":"14","author":"Hurissa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2965","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144-022-03028-0","article-title":"Interaction of empathy and culture: a review","volume":"43","author":"Jami","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Psychol."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"919499","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2022.919499","article-title":"The neural basis of moral judgement for self and for others","volume":"16","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2665","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-024-02875-0","article-title":"Psilocybin increases emotional empathy in patients with major depression","volume":"30","author":"Jungwirth","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2021.118333","article-title":"Neurocognitive mechanisms underlying improvement of prosocial responses by a novel implicit compassion promotion task","volume":"240","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.2024024180","article-title":"Low-intensity transcranial focused ultrasound suppresses pain by modulating pain-processing brain circuits","volume":"144","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2020.04.031","article-title":"Do i feel or do i know? Neuroimaging meta-analyses on the multiple facets of empathy","volume":"129","author":"Kogler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105543","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2024.105543","article-title":"Evolutionary neurobiology of parenting and empathy","volume":"158","author":"Kuroda","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-022-01523-x","article-title":"Chronic escitalopram in healthy volunteers has specific effects on reinforcement sensitivity","volume":"48","author":"Langley","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2485","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2024.3372074","article-title":"Measurement of empathy in virtual reality with head-mounted displays: a systematic review","volume":"30","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Vis. Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1625","DOI":"10.1097\/j.pain.0000000000003177","article-title":"Noninvasive neuromodulation of subregions of the human insula differentially affect pain processing and heart-rate variability","volume":"165","author":"Legon","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pain"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1905","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-09927-y","article-title":"The neural development of empathy is sensitive to caregiving and early trauma","volume":"10","author":"Levy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcn.2025.101456","article-title":"Dopaminergic pathways and developmental trajectories of empathy","volume":"71","author":"Liang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Dev. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"781346","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.781346","article-title":"Empathy: assessment instruments and psychometric quality","volume":"12","author":"Lima","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110582","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apacoust.2024.110582","article-title":"The ecological validity of laboratory experiments in soundscape and landscape research: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"232","author":"Lu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Acoust."},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"792960","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.792960","article-title":"Emotional blunting in patients with major depressive disorder","volume":"12","author":"Ma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Psych."},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1177\/1073858420960111","article-title":"Oxytocin and the neurobiology of prosocial behavior","volume":"27","author":"Marsh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuroscientist"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2024.05.006","article-title":"Updated international consensus on safety for transcranial ultrasonic neuromodulation","volume":"17","author":"Martin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"TMB0000034","DOI":"10.1037\/tmb0000034","article-title":"Virtual reality improves emotional but not cognitive empathy: a meta-analysis","volume":"2","author":"Martingano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Technol. Mind Behav."},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1037\/ocp0000345","article-title":"Workplace-based compassion interventions: a systematic review","volume":"30","author":"Martins","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Occup. Health Psychol."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2025.01.015","article-title":"Human social behavior and oxytocin: molecular and neuronal mechanisms","volume":"570","author":"Matsushita","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2023.01.010","article-title":"The effectiveness of compassion focused therapy with clinical populations: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"326","author":"Millard","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2020.00007","article-title":"Right temporoparietal junction involvement in autonomic responses to the suffering of others","volume":"14","author":"Miller","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01336-3","article-title":"MDMA-assisted therapy for severe PTSD: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 study","volume":"27","author":"Mitchell","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2473","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-023-02565-4","article-title":"MDMA-assisted therapy for moderate to severe PTSD: a randomized, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial","volume":"29","author":"Mitchell","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1007\/s41465-024-00298-1","article-title":"Temporal interference stimulation enhances episodic memory","volume":"8","author":"Modak","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Enhanc."},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare8010026","article-title":"The role of empathy in health and social care professionals","volume":"8","author":"Moudatsou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Healthcare"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2025.01.002","article-title":"Safety guidelines for transcranial ultrasonic stimulation: updated ITRUSST recommendations","volume":"18","author":"Murphy","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1111\/1475-6773.14102","article-title":"A systematic review of research on empathy in health care","volume":"58","author":"Nembhard","year":"2023","journal-title":"Health Serv. Res."},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2247888","DOI":"10.1080\/20008066.2023.2247888","article-title":"Complementary and integrative interventions for PTSD","volume":"14","author":"Niles","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Psychotraumatol."},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2021.02.005","article-title":"Neural mechanisms necessary for empathy-related phenomena across species","volume":"68","author":"Paradiso","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5116\/ijme.619e.c2b3","article-title":"The effectiveness of empathy training in health care: a meta-analysis","volume":"13","author":"Paulus","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Educ."},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1038\/s41583-024-00812-2","article-title":"Mechanistic insights into focused ultrasound neuromodulation","volume":"25","author":"Pellow","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1007\/s10916-024-02134-5","article-title":"Could empathy be taught? The role of advanced technologies to foster empathy in medical students","volume":"49","author":"Pira","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Med. Syst."},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.20529\/IJME.2025.012","article-title":"The UNESCO draft recommendations on ethics of neurotechnology\u2014a commentary","volume":"10","author":"Ramanathan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Indian J Med Ethics"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-024-01622-3","article-title":"MDMA therapy for PTSD rejected by FDA panel","volume":"629","author":"Reardon","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eadl6554","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adl6554","article-title":"MDMA enhances empathy-like behaviors in mice via 5-HT release in the nucleus accumbens","volume":"10","author":"Rein","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1366","DOI":"10.5498\/wjp.v11.i12.1366","article-title":"Autism spectrum disorder and personality disorders: comorbidity and differential diagnosis","volume":"11","author":"Rinaldi","year":"2021","journal-title":"World J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0247259","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0247259","article-title":"Socioeconomic, racial and ethnic differences in patient experience of clinician empathy","volume":"16","author":"Roberts","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3001","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-019-01945-2","article-title":"The cingulate cortex and limbic systems for emotion, action, and memory","volume":"224","author":"Rolls","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102034","DOI":"10.1016\/j.avb.2024.102034","article-title":"Effectiveness of virtual reality interventions for aggression, anger and impulsiveness: a multilevel meta-analysis","volume":"81","author":"Roncero","year":"2025","journal-title":"Aggress. Violent Behav."},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2020.10.003","article-title":"Safety and recommendations for TMS use in healthy subjects and patient populations","volume":"132","author":"Rossi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-019-0496-4","article-title":"Antidepressant treatment, not depression, leads to reductions in behavioral and neural responses to pain empathy","volume":"9","author":"R\u00fctgen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7853199","DOI":"10.1155\/2024\/7853199","article-title":"Boosting psychotherapy with noninvasive brain stimulation","volume":"2024","author":"Saccenti","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neural Plast."},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1835","DOI":"10.1016\/S1053-8119(03)00230-1","article-title":"People thinking about thinking people: the role of the temporo-parietal junction in 'theory of mind'","volume":"19","author":"Saxe","year":"2003","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"708","DOI":"10.1007\/s11031-017-9641-7","article-title":"Facilitating empathy through virtual reality","volume":"41","author":"Schutte","year":"2017","journal-title":"Motiv. Emot."},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1170473","DOI":"10.3389\/fnrgo.2023.1170473","article-title":"A map of evidence using tDCS to improve cognition in adults with TBI","volume":"4","author":"Schwertfeger","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Neuroergonomics"},{"key":"ref82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1186\/s13063-020-4166-1","article-title":"Transcranial direct current stimulation to improve empathic abilities in forensic offenders: study protocol","volume":"21","author":"Sergiou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trials"},{"key":"ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2015.07.020","article-title":"The social salience hypothesis of oxytocin","volume":"79","author":"Shamay-Tsoory","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1007\/s10964-023-01913-6","article-title":"Effective components of social emotional learning programs: a meta-analysis","volume":"53","author":"Shi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Youth Adolesc."},{"key":"ref85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"R875","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2014.06.054","article-title":"Empathy and compassion","volume":"24","author":"Singer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1093535","article-title":"Empathy for pain involves the affective but not sensory components of pain","volume":"303","author":"Singer","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121018","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2024.121018","article-title":"The polarity of high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation affects movement sequences","volume":"306","author":"Son","year":"2025","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.avb.2023.101828","article-title":"A meta-analytic review of the relationship between empathy and oxytocin","volume":"70","author":"Stark","year":"2023","journal-title":"Aggress. Violent Behav."},{"key":"ref89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21501319241226765","DOI":"10.1177\/21501319241226765","article-title":"Cross cultural empathetic behavior in health care providers: a review of 3 countries","volume":"15","author":"Sullivan-Detheridge","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Prim. Care Community Health"},{"key":"ref90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e66925","DOI":"10.2196\/66925","article-title":"Impact of a virtual reality intervention on stigma, empathy, and attitudes toward patients with psychotic disorders","volume":"12","author":"Tay","year":"2025","journal-title":"JMIR Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2025.121267","article-title":"Neural signatures underlying the effect of social structure on empathy and altruistic behaviors","volume":"315","author":"Tian","year":"2025","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref92","volume-title":"Draft text of the recommendation on the ethics of Neurotechnology (SHS\/IGM-NEURO\/2025\/MAY\/3)","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106324","article-title":"The effect of MDMA administration on oxytocin concentration levels: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"177","author":"Vaslavski","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"024001","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/ad2d32","article-title":"Safety, tolerability and blinding efficiency of non-invasive deep transcranial temporal interference stimulation","volume":"21","author":"Vassiliadis","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1994","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-023-01456-8","article-title":"Noninvasive temporal interference electrical stimulation of the human hippocampus","volume":"26","author":"Violante","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbaf038","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of transcranial temporal interference stimulation for improving negative symptoms in schizophrenia: a pilot study","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Schizophr. Bull."},{"key":"ref97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2239","DOI":"10.1177\/13623613251312890","article-title":"A certain magic': autistic adults' experiences of interacting with other autistic people","volume":"29","author":"Watts","year":"2025","journal-title":"Autism"},{"key":"ref98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.15540\/nr.8.2.87","article-title":"Transcranial direct current stimulation improves empathy and emotion recognition in adults with autism spectrum disorder","volume":"8","author":"Wilson","year":"2021","journal-title":"NeuroRegulation"},{"key":"ref99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e036471","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2019-036471","article-title":"Assessing the effect of empathy-enhancing interventions in health education: a systematic review","volume":"10","author":"Winter","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.20240583","article-title":"MDMA and MDMA-assisted therapy","volume":"182","author":"Wolfgang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1186\/s13643-025-02469-1","article-title":"Using virtual patients to enhance empathy in medical students: a scoping review protocol","volume":"14","author":"Yamada","year":"2025","journal-title":"Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291717002161","article-title":"The effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on empathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"48","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12020211","article-title":"Ethical considerations in clinical trials for disorders of consciousness","volume":"12","author":"Young","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"bqaf129","DOI":"10.1210\/endocr\/bqaf129","article-title":"The role of oxytocin in parental care","volume":"166","author":"Yuan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2023.12.007","article-title":"A causal role of right temporoparietal junction in prosocial learning: a transcranial direct current stimulation study","volume":"538","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuroscience"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1762816\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T05:42:50Z","timestamp":1772602970000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1762816\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]]},"references-count":105,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1762816"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1762816","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]]},"article-number":"1762816"}}