{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T00:54:27Z","timestamp":1783644867635,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":200,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777420800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002661","name":"Fonds De La Recherche Scientifique - FNRS","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002661","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001659","name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001659","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Motivational and attentional processes jointly determine how environmental cues influence behavior. Reward-predictive cues can acquire incentive salience, automatically capturing attention and eliciting approach responses even in the absence of deliberate intention, a phenomenon central to both adaptive behavior and certain forms of psychopathology. This review integrates animal and human evidence to examine how cue-triggered motivation and attention interact, and how these interactions are shaped by reward uncertainty, a dimension that has received limited interest in human research despite its robust effects in animals. Across species, uncertain or variably reinforced cues reliably intensify motivated behaviors. In animals, they enhance sign-tracking and promote persistent cue-directed responding, while in humans, paradigms such as uncertainty-modulated attentional capture (UMAC) show that uncertain cues exert a greater pull on attention, even when this impairs performance. We argue that these effects reflect an evolutionarily conserved mechanism that biases organisms toward exploration and information-seeking under unpredictable conditions. However, the same mechanisms can become maladaptive in modern environments, such as gambling or drug use, where artificially amplified reward signals can mimic or exaggerate the motivational impact of uncertainty, leading to compulsive cue attraction. By bridging motivational and attentional perspectives across animal and human research, this review offers a unified framework for understanding how reward cues gain motivational significance, how uncertainty modulates these processes, and why they may contribute to vulnerability in addiction-related behaviors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1796424","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T15:13:47Z","timestamp":1777475627000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Motivation, attention, and uncertainty: insights from animal and human research and implications for addiction"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Michelle","family":"Heck","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology & Neuroscience of Cognition\u2014PsyNCog, Universit\u00e9 de Li\u00e8ge","place":["Li\u00e8ge, Belgium"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Etienne","family":"Quertemont","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology & Neuroscience of Cognition\u2014PsyNCog, Universit\u00e9 de Li\u00e8ge","place":["Li\u00e8ge, Belgium"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrick","family":"Anselme","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biopsychology, Ruhr-University Bochum","place":["Bochum, Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2015.07.055","article-title":"Rats that sign-track are resistant to Pavlovian but not instrumental extinction","volume":"296","author":"Ahrens","year":"2016","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2017.01.041","article-title":"Selective attention moderates the relationship between attentional capture by signals of nondrug reward and illicit drug use","volume":"175","author":"Albertella","year":"2017","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2020.106745","article-title":"Reward-related attentional capture predicts non-abstinence during a one-month abstinence challenge","volume":"114","author":"Albertella","year":"2021","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abrep.2019.100195","article-title":"Persistence of value-modulated attentional capture is associated with risky alcohol use","volume":"10","author":"Albertella","year":"2019","journal-title":"Addict. Behav. Rep."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2015.12.062","article-title":"The role of dopamine in value-based attentional orienting","volume":"26","author":"Anderson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2014.08.062","article-title":"Value-driven attentional priority signals in human basal ganglia and visual cortex","volume":"1587","author":"Anderson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2016.03.014","article-title":"Motivational control of sign-tracking behaviour : a theoretical framework","volume":"65","author":"Anselme","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105985","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2024.105985","article-title":"Unconscious will as a neurobehavioral mechanism against adversity","volume":"169","author":"Anselme","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e35","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X18000948","article-title":"How foraging works : uncertainty magnifies food-seeking motivation","volume":"42","author":"Anselme","year":"2018","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Sci."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e58","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X18002194","article-title":"Incentive hope : a default psychological response to multiple forms of uncertainty","volume":"42","author":"Anselme","year":"2019","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Sci."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beproc.2017.08.013","article-title":"How unpredictable access to food increases the body fat of small passerines : a mechanistic approach","volume":"144","author":"Anselme","year":"2017","journal-title":"Behav. Processes"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beproc.2017.12.014","article-title":"Foraging motivation favors the occurrence of L\u00e9vy walks","volume":"147","author":"Anselme","year":"2018","journal-title":"Behav. Processes"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109861","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2020.109861","article-title":"From sign-tracking to attentional bias : implications for gambling and substance use disorders","volume":"99","author":"Anselme","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2012.10.006","article-title":"Reward uncertainty enhances incentive salience attribution as sign-tracking","volume":"238","author":"Anselme","year":"2013","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-025-02919-5","article-title":"Test-retest reliability of the gaze index for sign-tracking and goal-tracking","volume":"58","author":"Badioli","year":"2026","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2225-15.2016","article-title":"Dopamine D3 receptors modulate the ability of win-paired cues to increase risky choice in a rat gambling task","volume":"36","author":"Barrus","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2175","DOI":"10.1080\/17470218.2015.1009919","article-title":"Uncertainty and predictiveness determine attention to cues during human associative learning","volume":"68","author":"Beesley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Q. J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780199251063.003.0002","article-title":"\u201cIrrational pursuits: hyper-incentives from a visceral brain,\u201d","author":"Berridge","year":"2003","journal-title":"The Psychology of Economic Decisions, Vol. 1"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"932","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2023.07.007","article-title":"Separating desire from prediction of outcome value","volume":"27","author":"Berridge","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-0173(98)00019-8","article-title":"What is the role of dopamine in reward : hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience?","volume":"28","author":"Berridge","year":"1998","journal-title":"Brain Res. Rev."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1007\/s40429-015-0064-9","article-title":"The relationship between stress and motivation in pathological gambling: a focused review and analysis","volume":"2","author":"Biback","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Addict. Rep."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X00059380","article-title":"How adaptive behavior is produced: a perceptual-motivational alternative to response-reinforcement","volume":"1","author":"Bindra","year":"1978","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Sci."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.59792\/VEEC8896","article-title":"The law of expect or a modified law of effect?","volume":"4","author":"Blaisdell","year":"2016","journal-title":"Conductual"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003150404-4","article-title":"\u201cPerformance on learning to associate a stimulus with positive reinforcement,\u201d","author":"Boakes","year":"1977","journal-title":"Operant-Pavlovian Interactions"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/xan0000420","article-title":"The back-translation of value-modulated attentional capture from humans to rodents","author":"Bradfield","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Exper. Psychol. Anim. Learn. Cogn."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2014.06.004","article-title":"Cognitive processes underlying impaired decision-making under uncertainty in gambling disorder","volume":"39","author":"Brevers","year":"2014","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2020.07.006","article-title":"Neural circuitry of information seeking","volume":"35","author":"Bromberg-Martin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1037\/xan0000157","article-title":"Individual differences are more than a gene \u00d7 environment interaction : the role of learning","volume":"44","author":"Byrom","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Exper. Psychol. Anim. Learn. Cogn."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2004.04.020","article-title":"Is dopamine required for natural reward?","volume":"81","author":"Cannon","year":"2004","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10827","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.23-34-10827.2003","article-title":"Reward without dopamine","volume":"23","author":"Cannon","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"707086","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.707086","article-title":"Associative conditioning is a robust systemic behavior in unicellular organisms: an interspecies comparison","volume":"12","author":"Carrasco-Pujante","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/S0893-133X(98)00050-5","article-title":"Long-lasting psychotomimetic consequences of repeated low-dose amphetamine exposure in rhesus monkeys","volume":"20","author":"Castner","year":"1999","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2012.12.005","article-title":"Rewards teach visual selective attention","volume":"85","author":"Chelazzi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vision Res."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114865","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2024.114865","article-title":"Risk-promoting effects of reward-paired cues in human sign- and goal-trackers","volume":"461","author":"Cherkasova","year":"2024","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.3758\/s13414-020-02171-3","article-title":"Uncertainty modulates value-driven attentional capture","volume":"83","author":"Cho","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atten. Percept. Psychophys."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2016.06.028","article-title":"Toward isolating the role of dopamine in the acquisition of incentive salience attribution","volume":"109","author":"Chow","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1037\/xlm0001427","article-title":"Effects of instructed and experienced uncertainty on attentional priority","volume":"51","author":"Chow","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107626","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2023.107626","article-title":"Engineered highs: reward variability and frequency as potential prerequisites of behavioural addiction","volume":"140","author":"Clark","year":"2023","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4402","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-30906-3","article-title":"The propensity to sign-track is associated with externalizing behavior and distinct patterns of reward-related brain activation in youth","volume":"13","author":"Colaizzi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2020.01.018","article-title":"Mapping sign-tracking and goal-tracking onto human behaviors","volume":"111","author":"Colaizzi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"B41","unstructured":"Colom\n              M.\n            \n          \n          The Open University\n          Neurobiological and Behavioural Studies of Individual Variation in Cue-Evoked Motivation Across Rodents And Humans\n          \n          2023"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2022.114112","article-title":"A mechanical task for measuring sign- and goal-tracking in humans: a proof-of-concept study","volume":"436","author":"Cope","year":"2023","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03213369","article-title":"Within- and between-subjects partial reinforcement effects with an autoshaped response using Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica)","volume":"13","author":"Crawford","year":"1985","journal-title":"Anim. Learn. Behav."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9568.2006.04654.x","article-title":"Nucleus accumbens neurons encode Pavlovian approach behaviors : evidence from an autoshaping paradigm","volume":"23","author":"Day","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.3758\/s13415-014-0277-8","article-title":"Model-based and model-free Pavlovian reward learning: revaluation, revision, and revelation","volume":"14","author":"Dayan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applanim.2008.01.004","article-title":"Are pigs sensitive to variability in food rewards?","volume":"114","author":"de Jonge","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104906","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2025.104906","article-title":"Pavlovian bias instigates suboptimal choices in humans","volume":"195","author":"Degni","year":"2025","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1465-25.2025","article-title":"Reduced pavlovian value updating alters decision-making in sign-trackers","author":"Degni","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2006.01689.x","article-title":"Visual selective attention and the effects of monetary rewards","volume":"17","author":"Della Libera","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2009.02360.x","article-title":"Learning to attend and to ignore is a matter of gains and losses","volume":"20","author":"Della Libera","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appet.2016.11.012","article-title":"Attentional bias to unhealthy food in individuals with severe obesity and binge eating","volume":"108","author":"Deluchi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appetite"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114846","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2024.114846","article-title":"Sign-tracking and goal-tracking in humans : utilising eye-tracking in clinical and non-clinical populations","volume":"461","author":"Dinu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1007\/s10899-013-9391-8","article-title":"The impact of sound in modern multiline video slot machine play","volume":"30","author":"Dixon","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-021-01521-4","article-title":"Emergence of complex dynamics of choice due to repeated exposures to extinction learning","volume":"24","author":"Donoso","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"B55","unstructured":"Doran\n              K. S.\n            \n          \n          University of Sussex\n          Translational Approaches to Studying Reward-Based Purposive Behaviours\n          \n          2016"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5000","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.15787","article-title":"Sign-tracking modulates reward-related neural activation to reward cues, but not reward feedback","volume":"56","author":"Duckworth","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1080\/17470218.2017.1363257","article-title":"The onset of uncertainty facilitates the learning of new associations by increasing attention to cues","volume":"72","author":"Easdale","year":"2019","journal-title":"Q. J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15091","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-51442-z","article-title":"Macaques are risk-averse in a freely moving foraging task","volume":"9","author":"Eisenreich","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111979","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2019.111979","article-title":"Sign- and goal-tracking rats show differences in various executive functions","volume":"371","author":"Enkel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2553","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2011.0836","article-title":"Reconciling the influence of predictiveness and uncertainty on stimulus salience: a model of attention in associative learning","volume":"278","author":"Esber","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-0173(01)00088-1","article-title":"The neuropsychological basis of addictive behaviour","volume":"36","author":"Everitt","year":"2001","journal-title":"Brain Res. Rev."},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-017-1380-y","article-title":"Selection history: how reward modulates selectivity of visual attention","volume":"25","author":"Failing","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1037\/hea0000405","article-title":"The role of attentional bias in obesity and addiction","volume":"35","author":"Field","year":"2016","journal-title":"Health Psychol."},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1898","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1077349","article-title":"Discrete coding of reward probability and uncertainty by dopamine neurons","volume":"299","author":"Fiorillo","year":"2003","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2011.09.004","article-title":"A food predictive cue must be attributed with incentive salience for it to induce c-FOS mRNA expression in cortico-striatal-thalamic brain regions","volume":"196","author":"Flagel","year":"","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09588","article-title":"A selective role for dopamine in stimulus\u2013reward learning","volume":"469","author":"Flagel","year":"","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2009.142","article-title":"An animal model of genetic vulnerability to behavioral disinhibition and responsiveness to reward-related cues: implications for addiction","volume":"35","author":"Flagel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2661","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-021-05927-3","article-title":"Comment on Pohorala et al.: sign-tracking as a predictor of addiction vulnerability","volume":"238","author":"Flagel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-006-0535-8","article-title":"Individual differences in the propensity to approach signals vs goals promote different adaptations in the dopamine system of rats","volume":"191","author":"Flagel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1038\/s44159-023-00153-4","article-title":"A taxonomy of technology design features that promote potentially addictive online behaviours","volume":"2","author":"Flayelle","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.3758\/PBR.17.3.421","article-title":"Target-uncertainty effects in attentional capture : color-singleton set or multiple attentional control settings?","volume":"17","author":"Folk","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2018.10.017","article-title":"The impact of stimulus uncertainty on attentional control","volume":"183","author":"Frings","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2020.113111","article-title":"Effects of partial reinforcement on autoshaping in inbred Roman high- and low-avoidance rats","volume":"225","author":"Fuentes-Verdugo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2015.00163","article-title":"Individual differences in the influence of task-irrelevant Pavlovian cues on human behavior","volume":"9","author":"Garofalo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03209729","article-title":"Partial reinforcement in autoshaping with pigeons","volume":"8","author":"Gibbon","year":"1980","journal-title":"Anim. Learn. Behav."},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lmot.2018.05.001","article-title":"Transfer between anticipatory and consummatory tasks involving reward loss","volume":"63","author":"Glueck","year":"2018","journal-title":"Learn. Motiv."},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1283","DOI":"10.1093\/qje\/121.4.1283","article-title":"The uncertainty effect: when a risky prospect is valued less than its worst possible outcome","volume":"121","author":"Gneezy","year":"2006","journal-title":"Q. J. Econ."},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03196031","article-title":"Acquisition with partial and continuous reinforcement in pigeon autoshaping","volume":"32","author":"Gottlieb","year":"2004","journal-title":"Learn. Behav."},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1037\/0097-7403.31.3.319","article-title":"Acquisition with partial and continuous reinforcement in rat magazine approach","volume":"31","author":"Gottlieb","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Anim. Behav. Process."},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beproc.2005.11.008","article-title":"Effects of partial reinforcement and time between reinforced trials on terminal response rate in pigeon autoshaping","volume":"72","author":"Gottlieb","year":"2006","journal-title":"Behav. Processes"},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2013.09.001","article-title":"Information-seeking, curiosity, and attention: computational and neural mechanisms","volume":"17","author":"Gottlieb","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01014863","article-title":"Fruit machine gambling: the importance of structural characteristics","volume":"9","author":"Griffiths","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1037\/a0024554","article-title":"Response rate and reinforcement rate in Pavlovian conditioning","volume":"37","author":"Harris","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Anim. Behav. Process."},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nlm.2014.07.010","article-title":"Dynamic shaping of dopamine signals during probabilistic Pavlovian conditioning","volume":"117","author":"Hart","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Learn. Mem."},{"key":"B85","volume-title":"Sign-Tracking : The Stimulus-Reinforcer Relation and Directed Action","author":"Hearst","year":"1974"},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.3758\/s13415-024-01230-8","article-title":"Implementations of sign- and goal-tracking behavior in humans: a scoping review","volume":"25","author":"Heck","year":"","journal-title":"Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/mot0000408","article-title":"Sign tracking and alcohol consumption: a translational computerized task assessing individual differences in humans","author":"Heck","year":"","journal-title":"Motiv. Sci."},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.3758\/s13415-018-00662-3","article-title":"Cued for risk: evidence for an incentive sensitization framework to explain the interplay between stress and anxiety, substance abuse, and reward uncertainty in disordered gambling behavior","volume":"19","author":"Hellberg","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-63425-2.00003-9","article-title":"The role of learning-related dopamine signals in addiction vulnerability","volume":"211","author":"Huys","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prog. Brain Res."},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7376","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0848-23.2023","article-title":"Inhibition of dopamine neurons prevents incentive value encoding of a reward cue: with revelations from deep phenotyping","volume":"43","author":"Iglesias","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B91","unstructured":"Joyner\n              M.\n            \n          \n          Examining Behavioral Phenotypes of Overeating and Obesity: environmental, Psychological, and Neurobiological Influences on Food Motivation and Palatable Food Consumption\n          \n          2019"},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1037\/xlm0001189","article-title":"The modulation of value-driven attentional capture by exploration for reward information","volume":"49","author":"Ju","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"B93","volume-title":"Thinking, Fast and Slow","author":"Kahneman","year":"2011"},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neunet.2023.09.032","article-title":"Reward prediction-errors weighted by cue salience produces addictive behaviours in simulations, with asymmetrical learning and steeper delay discounting","volume":"168","author":"Kalhan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neural Netw."},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2021.02.039","article-title":"A salience misattribution model for addictive-like behaviors","volume":"125","author":"Kalhan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1037\/xan0000394","article-title":"Impact of temporal uncertainty on sign-tracking behavior","volume":"51","author":"Kaneko","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Exper. Psychol. Anim. Learn. Cogn."},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1226518","article-title":"Network resets in medial prefrontal cortex mark the onset of behavioral uncertainty","volume":"338","author":"Karlsson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3587","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-016-4393-8","article-title":"Less is more : prolonged intermittent access cocaine self-administration produces incentive-sensitization and addiction-like behavior","volume":"233","author":"Kawa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1037\/pne0000346","article-title":"Quantification of attentional capacity and motivation in sign-tracking and goal-tracking behavior","volume":"17","author":"Kindedji","year":"2024","journal-title":"Psychol. Neurosci."},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2947","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3499-16.2017","article-title":"Unresponsive choline transporter as a trait neuromarker and a causal mediator of bottom-up attentional biases","volume":"37","author":"Koshy Cherian","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1037\/0000012-012","article-title":"\u201cEthological and evolutionary perspectives on Pavlovian conditioning,\u201d","author":"Krause","year":"2017","journal-title":"APA Handbook of Comparative Psychology: Perception, Learning, and Cognition, Vol. 2"},{"key":"B102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000064","article-title":"Attention and associative learning in humans: an integrative review","volume":"142","author":"Le Pelley","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"B103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0000037","article-title":"When goals conflict with values: counterproductive attentional and oculomotor capture by reward-related stimuli","volume":"144","author":"Le Pelley","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Gen."},{"key":"B104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1080\/17470218.2017.1313874","article-title":"Oculomotor capture is influenced by expected reward value but (maybe) not predictiveness","volume":"72","author":"Le Pelley","year":"2019","journal-title":"Q. J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"B105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1037\/bne0000583","article-title":"Biased choice and incentive salience: implications for addiction","volume":"138","author":"Le Pelley","year":"2024","journal-title":"Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"B106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2004015","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.2004015","article-title":"Manipulating the revision of reward value during the intertrial interval increases sign tracking and dopamine release","volume":"16","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Biol."},{"key":"B107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2017.00230","article-title":"Food-predicting stimuli differentially influence eye movements and goal-directed behavior in normal-weight, overweight, and obese individuals","volume":"8","author":"Lehner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1334","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2010.01217.x","article-title":"Behavioral and biological indicators of impulsivity in the development of alcohol use, problems, and disorders","volume":"34","author":"Lejuez","year":"2010","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"B109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11436","article-title":"Severe stress switches CRF action in the nucleus accumbens from appetitive to aversive","volume":"490","author":"Lemos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1159\/000513470","article-title":"Reward-related attentional capture moderates the association between fear-driven motives and heavy drinking","volume":"27","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Addict. Res."},{"key":"B111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/ENEURO.0384-20.2021","article-title":"Male goal-tracker and sign-tracker rats do not differ in neuroendocrine or behavioral measures of stress reactivity","author":"Lopez","year":"2021","journal-title":"eNeuro"},{"key":"B112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2011.04.006","article-title":"Rats prone to attribute incentive salience to reward cues are also prone to impulsive action","volume":"223","author":"Lovic","year":"2011","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"B113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1037\/h0076778","article-title":"A theory of attention : variations in the associability of stimuli with reinforcement","volume":"82","author":"Mackintosh","year":"1975","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"B114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104911","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beproc.2023.104911","article-title":"Effects of inter-trial interval on sign-tracking and conditioned reinforcer efficacy in female rats","volume":"210","author":"Mahmoudi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Behav. Processes"},{"key":"B115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-018-0099-4","article-title":"Exposure to conditions of uncertainty promotes the pursuit of amphetamine","volume":"44","author":"Mascia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"B116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1108","DOI":"10.3758\/s13414-024-02878-7","article-title":"Manipulating the reliability of target-color information modulates value-driven attentional capture","volume":"86","author":"Massa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Atten. Percept. Psychophys."},{"key":"B117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e105476","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0105476","article-title":"Enhanced attentional bias towards sexually explicit cues in individuals with and without compulsive sexual behaviours","volume":"9","author":"Mechelmans","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e38987","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0038987","article-title":"Quantifying individual variation in the propensity to attribute incentive salience to reward cues","volume":"7","author":"Meyer","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"B119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1024","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1994.72.2.1024","article-title":"Importance of unpredictability for reward responses in primate dopamine neurons","volume":"72","author":"Mirenowicz","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"B120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1113-22.2022","article-title":"Reward-mediated, model-free reinforcement-learning mechanisms in pavlovian and instrumental tasks are related","volume":"43","author":"Moin Afshar","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2020.06.009","article-title":"How outcome uncertainty mediates attention, learning, and decision-making","volume":"43","author":"Monosov","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"B122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1038\/s41583-023-00784-9","article-title":"Curiosity: primate neural circuits for novelty and information seeking","volume":"25","author":"Monosov","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"B123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2015.00468","article-title":"Sign tracking, but not goal tracking, is resistant to outcome devaluation","volume":"9","author":"Morrison","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"B124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24279","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144-024-06067-5","article-title":"Attentional bias to uncertainty-based information: a conceptual replication of Fergus et al. (2013)","volume":"43","author":"Morriss","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Psychol."},{"key":"B125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107915","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nlm.2024.107915","article-title":"Variation in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement in generating different conditioned behaviors","volume":"211","author":"Navarro","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Learn. Mem."},{"key":"B126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2015","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-024-06614-9","article-title":"Relapse after intermittent access to cocaine: discriminative cues more effectively trigger drug seeking than do conditioned cues","volume":"241","author":"Ndiaye","year":"2024","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"B127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1007\/s10899-009-9136-x","article-title":"A comparison of ambient casino sound and music: effects on dissociation and on perceptions of elapsed time while playing slot machines","volume":"25","author":"Noseworthy","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"B128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E3660","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1305373110","article-title":"Dissociable effects of surprise and model update in parietal and anterior cingulate cortex","volume":"110","author":"O'Reilly","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"B129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1417.003","article-title":"Dopamine signaling in the dorsal striatum is essential for motivated behaviors: lessons from dopamine-deficient mice","volume":"1129","author":"Palmiter","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"B130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8321","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0709-13.2013","article-title":"Cholinergic control over attention in rats prone to attribute incentive salience to reward cues","volume":"33","author":"Paolone","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-006-9014-z","article-title":"The psychology of the fruit machine: the role of structural characteristics (revisited)","volume":"4","author":"Parke","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Addict."},{"key":"B132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1002\/syn.890190108","article-title":"Amphetamine-induced time-dependent sensitization of dopamine neurotransmission in the dorsal and ventral striatum : a microdialysis study in behaving rats","volume":"19","author":"Paulson","year":"1995","journal-title":"Synapse"},{"key":"B133","volume-title":"Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex","author":"Pavlov","year":"1927"},{"key":"B134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.87.6.532","article-title":"A model for Pavlovian learning : variations in the effectiveness of conditioned but not of unconditioned stimuli","volume":"87","author":"Pearce","year":"1980","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"B135","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1080\/14640748508401176","article-title":"A comparison of the effects of partial reinforcement schedules using a within-subject serial autoshaping procedure","volume":"37","author":"Pearce","year":"1985","journal-title":"Q. J. Exp. Psychol. B"},{"key":"B136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1628","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0001586","article-title":"Uncertainty-modulated attentional capture : outcome variance increases attentional priority","volume":"153","author":"Pearson","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Gen."},{"key":"B137","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1080\/13506285.2014.994252","article-title":"Cognitive control and counterproductive oculomotor capture by reward-related stimuli","volume":"23","author":"Pearson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vis. Cogn."},{"key":"B138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9395","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.23-28-09395.2003","article-title":"Hyperdopaminergic mutant mice have higher \u201cwanting\u201d but not \u201cliking\u201d for sweet rewards","volume":"23","author":"Peci\u00f1a","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B139","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1007\/s40732-018-0275-2","article-title":"Delay gradients for spout-licking and magazine-entering induced by a periodic food schedule","volume":"68","author":"Pell\u00f3n","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychol. Rec."},{"key":"B140","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"0990","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0990-17.2017","article-title":"Diverse roads to relapse : a discriminative cue signaling cocaine availability is more effective in renewing cocaine seeking in goal trackers than sign trackers and depends on basal forebrain cholinergic activity","volume":"37","author":"Pitchers","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B141","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1007\/s00426-025-02135-y","article-title":"An examination of how reward associations facilitate and impair Stroop performance","volume":"89","author":"Pitchford","year":"2025","journal-title":"Psychol. Res."},{"key":"B142","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1390.005","article-title":"Adding prediction risk to the theory of reward learning","volume":"1104","author":"Preuschoff","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"B143","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1944","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1102384","article-title":"Addiction as a computational process gone awry","volume":"306","author":"Redish","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B144","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-018-0130-9","article-title":"How uncertainty sensitizes dopamine neurons and invigorates amphetamine-related behaviors","volume":"44","author":"Robinson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"B145","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2014.03.004","article-title":"Initial uncertainty in Pavlovian reward prediction persistently elevates incentive salience and extends sign-tracking to normally unattractive cues","volume":"266","author":"Robinson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"B146","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1037\/bne0000064","article-title":"Amphetamine-induced sensitization and reward uncertainty similarly enhance incentive salience for conditioned cues","volume":"129","author":"Robinson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"B147","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2013.01.016","article-title":"Instant transformation of learned repulsion into motivational \u201cwanting\u201d","volume":"23","author":"Robinson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"B148","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114612","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2023.114612","article-title":"Unpredictable, intermittent access to sucrose or water promotes increased reward pursuit in rats","volume":"453","author":"Robinson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"B149","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-0173(93)90013-P","article-title":"The neural basis of drug craving : an incentive-sensitization theory of addiction","volume":"18","author":"Robinson","year":"1993","journal-title":"Brain Res. Rev."},{"key":"B150","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-011624-024031","article-title":"The incentive-sensitization theory of addiction 30 years on","volume":"76","author":"Robinson","year":"2025","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"B151","article-title":"\u201cThe propensity to attribute incentive salience to drug cues and poor cognitive control combine to render sign-trackers susceptible to addiction,\u201d","author":"Robinson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sign-Tracking and Drug Addiction"},{"key":"B152","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2008.09.006","article-title":"Dissociating the predictive and incentive motivational properties of reward-related cues through the study of individual differences","volume":"65","author":"Robinson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B153","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2013.05.040","article-title":"On the motivational properties of reward cues : individual differences","volume":"76","author":"Robinson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"B154","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8931","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-63866-5","article-title":"Neural coding of choice and outcome are modulated by uncertainty in orbitofrontal but not secondary motor cortex","volume":"16","author":"Romero-Sosa","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"B155","first-page":"35","article-title":"Effects of context change upon retrieval of first and second-learned information in human predictive learning","volume":"27","author":"Rosas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psicol\u00f3gica"},{"key":"B156","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-2236(98)01289-2","article-title":"Abnormal regulation of corticopetal cholinergic neurons and impaired information processing in neuropsychiatric disorders","volume":"22","author":"Sarter","year":"1999","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"B157","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresrev.2005.11.002","article-title":"More attention must be paid : the neurobiology of attentional effort","volume":"51","author":"Sarter","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brain Res. Rev."},{"key":"B158","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1037\/bne0000226","article-title":"The neuroscience of cognitive-motivational styles : sign- and goal-trackers as animal models","volume":"132","author":"Sarter","year":"2018","journal-title":"Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"B159","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1668","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2011.48","article-title":"Individual Variation in the Motivational Properties of Cocaine","volume":"36","author":"Saunders","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"B160","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2521","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9568.2012.08217.x","article-title":"The role of dopamine in the accumbens core in the expression of Pavlovian-conditioned responses","volume":"36","author":"Saunders","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B161","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13989","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0450-13.2013","article-title":"Cue-evoked cocaine \u201ccraving\u201d: role of dopamine in the accumbens core","volume":"33","author":"Saunders","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B162","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-019-0765-5","article-title":"Dissociating neural learning signals in human sign- and goal-trackers","volume":"4","author":"Schad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"B163","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-024-03162-w","article-title":"Resting-state brain activation patterns and network topology distinguish human sign and goal trackers","volume":"14","author":"Schettino","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B164","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1998.80.1.1","article-title":"Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons","volume":"80","author":"Schultz","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"B165","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"900","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.13-03-00900.1993","article-title":"Responses of monkey dopamine neurons to reward and conditioned stimuli during successive steps of learning a delayed response task","volume":"13","author":"Schultz","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B166","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1593","DOI":"10.1126\/science.275.5306.1593","article-title":"A neural substrate of prediction and reward","volume":"275","author":"Schultz","year":"1997","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B167","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1007\/s40614-022-00340-3","article-title":"A theory of the extinction burst","volume":"45","author":"Shahan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Perspect. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"B168","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109944","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2020.109944","article-title":"An overview of commonalities in the mechanisms underlying gambling and substance use disorders","volume":"101","author":"Singer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B169","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2011.09.003","article-title":"Unpredictable saccharin reinforcement enhances locomotor responding to amphetamine","volume":"226","author":"Singer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"B170","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2020.106438","article-title":"Approach bias for erotic stimuli among heterosexual female college students who use pornography","volume":"108","author":"Sklenarik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"B171","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1038\/s41583-019-0180-y","article-title":"Adaptive learning under expected and unexpected uncertainty","volume":"20","author":"Soltani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"B172","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2020.08.014","article-title":"Dopamine signals as temporal difference errors: recent advances","volume":"67","author":"Starkweather","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"B173","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-021-02047-z","article-title":"Quantifying the instrumental and noninstrumental underpinnings of Pavlovian responding with the Price equation","volume":"29","author":"Strand","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"B174","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2645","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-021-05887-8","article-title":"Sign tracking predicts suboptimal behavior in a rodent gambling task","volume":"238","author":"Swintosky","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"B175","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2018.12.024","article-title":"Goal-driven, stimulus-driven, and history-driven selection","volume":"29","author":"Theeuwes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychol."},{"key":"B176","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115800","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2025.115800","article-title":"The effects of multimodal distractors on sign-trackers and goal-trackers attention","volume":"495","author":"Th\u00e9riault","year":"2025","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"B177","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12220","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2499-09.2009","article-title":"Dynamic computation of incentive salience: \u201cwanting\u201d what was never \u201cliked\u201d","volume":"29","author":"Tindell","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B178","unstructured":"Toates\n              F. M.\n            \n          \n          Motivational Systems\n          \n          1986"},{"key":"B179","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00762.2005","article-title":"Human neural learning depends on reward prediction errors in the blocking paradigm","volume":"95","author":"Tobler","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"B180","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1007\/s002130050728","article-title":"Ethanol induces impulsive-like responding in a delay-of-reward operant choice procedure: impulsivity predicts autoshaping","volume":"139","author":"Tomie","year":"1998","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"B181","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresrev.2007.12.003","article-title":"Behavioral characteristics and neurobiological substrates shared by Pavlovian sign-tracking and drug abuse","volume":"58","author":"Tomie","year":"2008","journal-title":"Brain Res. Rev."},{"key":"B182","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1037\/a0022310","article-title":"Prediction and uncertainty in human Pavlovian to instrumental transfer","volume":"37","author":"Trick","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"B183","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2014.12.034","article-title":"Sign-tracking predicts increased choice of cocaine over food in rats","volume":"281","author":"Tunstall","year":"2015","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"B184","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2017.06.010","article-title":"Increased striatal dopamine synthesis capacity in gambling addiction","volume":"83","author":"van Holst","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B185","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7866","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0454-15.2015","article-title":"Noradrenaline and dopamine neurons in the reward\/effort trade-off: a direct electrophysiological comparison in behaving monkeys","volume":"35","author":"Varazzani","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B186","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108402","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2020.108402","article-title":"Impulsivity traits and neurocognitive mechanisms conferring vulnerability to substance use disorders","volume":"183","author":"Verdejo-Garcia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"B187","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2985","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-016-4341-7","article-title":"The tendency to sign-track predicts cue-induced reinstatement during nicotine self-administration, and is enhanced by nicotine but not ethanol","volume":"233","author":"Versaggi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"B188","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2716","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-16407-1","article-title":"The central amygdala recruits mesocorticolimbic circuitry for pursuit of reward or pain","volume":"11","author":"Warlow","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"B189","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108010","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2024.108010","article-title":"Sign-tracking to non-drug reward is related to severity of alcohol-use problems in a sample of individuals seeking treatment","volume":"154","author":"Watson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"B190","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"niae008","DOI":"10.1093\/nc\/niae008","article-title":"Digital being: social media and the predictive mind","volume":"2024","author":"White","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurosci. Conscious."},{"key":"B191","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8721.2006.00455.x","article-title":"Implicit cognition and addiction","volume":"15","author":"Wiers","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"B192","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429296918-10","article-title":"\u201cAkrasia and addiction: neurophilosophy and psychological mechanisms,\u201d","author":"Wiers","year":"2021","journal-title":"Social Neuroeconomics: Mechanistic Integration of the Neurosciences and the Social Sciences"},{"key":"B193","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1467-9221.2003.00346.x","article-title":"Irrational wanting and subrational liking: how rudimentary motivational and affective processes shape preferences and choices","volume":"24","author":"Winkielman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Polit. Psychol."},{"key":"B194","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3685","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-015-4027-6","article-title":"Cue reactivity and its relation to craving and relapse in alcohol dependence: a combined laboratory and field study","volume":"232","author":"Witteman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"B195","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12327","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms12327","article-title":"Predictive decision making driven by multiple time-linked reward representations in the anterior cingulate cortex","volume":"7","author":"Wittmann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"B196","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1269","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2014.314","article-title":"Individual variation in the motivational and neurobiological effects of an opioid cue","volume":"40","author":"Yager","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"B197","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1775","DOI":"10.1038\/oby.2011.168","article-title":"Attentional bias to food images associated with elevated weight and future weight gain: an fMRI study","volume":"19","author":"Yokum","year":"2011","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"B198","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2014.00036","article-title":"Chronic exposure to a gambling-like schedule of reward predictive stimuli can promote sensitization to amphetamine in rats","volume":"8","author":"Zack","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"B199","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109853","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2019.109853","article-title":"Dopaminergic signaling of uncertainty and the aetiology of gambling addiction","volume":"99","author":"Zack","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B200","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1000437","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1000437","article-title":"A neural computational model of incentive salience","volume":"5","author":"Zhang","year":"2009","journal-title":"PLoS Comput. Biol."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1796424\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T15:13:54Z","timestamp":1777475634000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1796424\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]]},"references-count":200,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1796424"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1796424","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]]},"article-number":"1796424"}}