{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T06:30:31Z","timestamp":1786516231177,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786492800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Purpose<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This scoping review aimed to systematically map and synthesize the existing eye-tracking literature on cognitive decision-making in police use of force. Specifically, it integrated evidence across five key domains: eye-tracking metric frameworks, decision-making paradigms, expert\u2013novice differences, stress-related influences, and training interventions. The findings contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the cognitive mechanisms underlying police use-of-force decision-making and provide empirical support for the optimization of police training systems.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Following the PRISMA-ScR guidelines, a systematic search was conducted across four databases, including PubMed. Of 103 identified records, 15 studies were included after duplicate removal, title and abstract screening, and full-text assessment. Data on publication characteristics, study designs, participant characteristics, eye-tracking metrics, research themes, and key findings were extracted and descriptively synthesized to map the current evidence landscape and characterize the existing body of research.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The included studies revealed that eye-tracking metrics in police use-of-force decision-making have evolved from single fixation-based measures to multidimensional frameworks incorporating fixation allocation, saccadic dynamics, visual states, and physiological\u2013eye movement coupling. Existing decision-making paradigms highlight the importance of accurate attention allocation to threat-relevant cues and the avoidance of expectation-driven \u201cshooting before seeing\u201d responses. Expert\u2013novice studies suggest that tactical training experience, rather than occupational tenure alone, contributes to more efficient gaze strategies under stress. Stress may impair decision-making by increasing threat expectancy and reducing fixation stability, whereas training interventions targeting deliberate practice and tactical gaze control improve gaze efficiency and response speed, with limited effects on decision accuracy among experienced officers.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Eye-tracking research on police use-of-force decision-making has progressed from descriptive observation to mechanism-based explanation and intervention validation. Future research should integrate cognitive reappraisal and attentional regulation into a unified training framework, translating laboratory findings into scalable police training practices to reduce decision-making errors through evidence-based approaches.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1837475","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T05:54:58Z","timestamp":1786514098000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Cognitive decision-making in police use of force: a scoping review based on eye-tracking research"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Yaoguang","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School, People\u2019s Public Security University of China","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenlai","family":"Cui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Police Law Enforcement Abilities Training, People\u2019s Public Security University of China","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"ENEURO.0112-24.2024","DOI":"10.1523\/ENEURO.0112-24.2024","article-title":"Oscillatory neural correlates of police firearms decision-making in virtual reality","volume":"11","author":"Alexander","year":"2024","journal-title":"eneuro"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1080\/0142159X.2017.1391373","article-title":"Eye-tracking technology in medical education: a systematic review","volume":"40","author":"Ashraf","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med. Teach."},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1007\/s11896-023-09640-z","article-title":"Law and disorder: assessing conflicting news coverage of police use of force","volume":"39","author":"Callahan","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Police Crim. Psychol."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1007\/s12103-021-09643-8","article-title":"Attitudes towards police and weapon carriage among adolescents","volume":"47","author":"Cunningham","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Crim. Justice"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1037\/lhb0000629","article-title":"The reasonable officer standard: perceptions of reasonableness and legal decision making","volume":"49","author":"Flick","year":"2025","journal-title":"Law Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.00440","article-title":"Decision-making competence, social orientation, time style, and perceived stress","volume":"9","author":"Geisler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1007\/s11896-020-09412-z","article-title":"Gaze control in law enforcement: comparing a tactical police unit to patrol officers","volume":"37","author":"Heusler","year":"","journal-title":"J. Police Crim. Psychol."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"798766","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.798766","article-title":"Shoot or Don\u2019t shoot? Tactical gaze control and visual attention training improves police cadets\u2019 decision-making performance in live-fire scenarios","volume":"13","author":"Heusler","year":"","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5047","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19095047","article-title":"Experience-dependent effects to situational awareness in police officers: an eye tracking study","volume":"19","author":"Huhta","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/00140139.2015.1107625","article-title":"The impact of personality traits and professional experience on police officers\u2019 shooting performance under pressure","volume":"59","author":"Landman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ergonomics"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1177\/1098611120944387","article-title":"Improving the accuracy of firearm identification in a dynamic use of force scenario","volume":"24","author":"Martaindale","year":"2021","journal-title":"Police Q."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4289","DOI":"10.3390\/s21134289","article-title":"Application of eye tracking Technology in Aviation, maritime, and construction industries: a systematic review","volume":"21","author":"Martinez-Marquez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1186\/s41235-019-0169-0","article-title":"Eye see through you! Eye tracking unmasks concealed face recognition despite countermeasures","volume":"4","author":"Millen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cogn. Res. Princ. Implic."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1080\/00222895.2023.2229946","article-title":"Gaze control and tactical decision-making under stress in active-duty police officers during a live use-of-force response","volume":"56","author":"Murray","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mot. Behav."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1080\/10615800902977494","article-title":"Effects of anxiety on handgun shooting behavior of police officers: a pilot study","volume":"23","author":"Nieuwenhuys","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anxiety Stress Coping"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1037\/a0025699","article-title":"Shoot or Don\u2019t shoot? Why police officers are more inclined to shoot when they are anxious","volume":"12","author":"Nieuwenhuys","year":"2012","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2014.12.006","article-title":"Persistence of threat-induced errors in police officers\u2019 shooting decisions","volume":"48","author":"Nieuwenhuys","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Ergon."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1495812","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2024.1495812","article-title":"Blended police firearms training improves performance in shoot\/don\u2019t shoot scenarios: a systematic replication with police cadets","volume":"15","author":"Olma","year":"","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1335892","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2024.1335892","article-title":"When failure is not an option: a police firearms training concept for improving decision-making in shoot\/don\u2019t shoot scenarios","volume":"15","author":"Olma","year":"","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1007\/s11524-024-00940-1","article-title":"Less-lethal weapons and civilian injury in police use of force encounters: a multi-agency analysis","volume":"102","author":"Petersen","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Urban Health"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1080\/15614263.2024.2369130","article-title":"To shoot or not to shoot?: examining biased eye movements during a shooter task","volume":"26","author":"Seitchik","year":"2025","journal-title":"Police Pract. Res."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1109\/RBME.2021.3066072","article-title":"Review of eye tracking metrics involved in emotional and cognitive processes","volume":"16","author":"Skaramagkas","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1177\/10986111231209936","article-title":"An examination of unintentional use of force by the police","volume":"27","author":"Stroshine","year":"2024","journal-title":"Police Q."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/00140139.2025.2540417","article-title":"Expertise modulates visual sampling strategies in authorised firearms police officers","author":"Sudkamp","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ergonomics"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1007\/s12552-022-09356-5","article-title":"Racial essentialism and stress: a deadly combination for prospective police officers\u2019 encounters with black suspects","volume":"15","author":"Tawa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Race Soc. Probl."},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.7326\/M18-0850","article-title":"PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): checklist and explanation","volume":"169","author":"Tricco","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2011.04.004","article-title":"Performing under pressure: gaze control, decision making and shooting performance of elite and rookie police officers","volume":"31","author":"Vickers","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1080\/00140139.2021.1960429","article-title":"Physical and cognitive demands associated with police in-vehicle technology use: an on-road case study","volume":"65","author":"Zahabi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ergonomics"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1837475\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T05:54:59Z","timestamp":1786514099000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1837475\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]]},"references-count":28,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1837475"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1837475","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]]},"article-number":"1837475"}}