{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T06:05:05Z","timestamp":1785305105673,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785283200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>The present study aims to investigate the repetition priming within and across languages in verbs among non-proficient Chinese-English bilinguals, using a verb generation task. The impact of levels of processing on repetition priming was also examined. A total of 160 non-proficient Chinese-English bilinguals participated in the experiments, generating English verbs (Experiment 1) or Chinese verbs (Experiment 2) that corresponded to the same set of 50 translation-equivalent nouns across the two languages. The results revealed significant within-language repetition priming in both deep- and shallow-encoding conditions, whereas significant cross-language repetition priming was only observed in the deep-encoding condition. Within-language repetition priming was significantly greater compared to cross-language repetition priming. In addition, repetition priming within L2 English was significantly greater than that within L1 Chinese under deep-encoding condition. Cross-language priming showed a directional asymmetry, with stronger priming from Chinese to English than from English to Chinese. These results largely indicate that verb concepts are shared across the two typologically distant languages for non-proficient Chinese-English bilinguals. Notably, the repetition priming in verbs was modulated by levels of processing, with larger priming in the deep-encoding condition than in the shallow-encoding condition.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1857807","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T05:57:40Z","timestamp":1785304660000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Within- and cross-language repetition priming in verb generation: evidence from non-proficient Chinese-English bilinguals"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Zhen","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Foreign Languages and Cultures, Beijing Wuzi University","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lin","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Research Center for Foreign Language Education, Beijing Foreign Studies University","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lingyun","family":"Tian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Foreign Languages, Harbin University of Science and Technology","place":["Harbin, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/S0093-934X(03)00108-1","article-title":"Accessing word meaning in two languages: an event-related brain potential study of beginning bilinguals","volume":"87","author":"Alvarez","year":"2003","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.16.3.404","article-title":"Implicit memory and test awareness","volume":"16","author":"Bowers","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1016\/s0022-5371(72)80001-x","article-title":"Levels of processing: a framework for memory research","volume":"11","author":"Craik","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behav."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-10112-5_1","volume-title":"Cognitive Science Perspectives on Verb Representation and Processing","author":"de Almeida","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1080\/09658211.2012.667109","article-title":"Repetition priming within and between languages in verb generation: evidence for shared verb concepts","volume":"20","author":"de la Riva L\u00f3pez","year":"2012","journal-title":"Memory"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1177\/17470218251365517","article-title":"Repetition leads to short-term reduction of word frequency and name agreement effects: evidence from a Dutch two-session picture naming experiment","volume":"79","author":"Decuyper","year":"2026","journal-title":"Q. J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728918000287","article-title":"Multilink: a computational model for bilingual word recognition and word translation","volume":"22","author":"Dijkstra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biling. Lang. Cogn."},{"key":"ref8","first-page":"405","article-title":"A study of the lexical competition and repetition priming effects among Chinese college students during Chinese and English noun generation","volume":"49","author":"Fan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Foreign Lang. Teach. Res."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-014-0610-9","article-title":"Repetition priming in picture naming: sustained learning through the speeding of multiple processes","volume":"21","author":"Francis","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1177\/1367006918814375","article-title":"Shared core meanings and shared associations in bilingual semantic memory: evidence from research on implicit memory","volume":"24","author":"Francis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biling."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105656","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2025.105656","article-title":"Representations and processes in bilingual memory: advances since cognitive processing in bilinguals","volume":"272","author":"Francis","year":"2026","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1283","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.29.6.1283","article-title":"Repetition priming in picture naming and translation depends on shared processes and their difficulty: evidence from Spanish-English bilinguals","volume":"29","author":"Francis","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.137.3.566","article-title":"Decomposition of repetition priming components in picture naming","volume":"137","author":"Francis","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Gen."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1037\/a0021326","article-title":"Decomposition of repetition priming processes in word translation","volume":"37","author":"Francis","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1080\/09658211.2010.511234","article-title":"Conceptual and non-conceptual repetition priming in category exemplar generation: evidence from bilinguals","volume":"18","author":"Francis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Memory"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1080\/09658211.2011.595724","article-title":"Repetition priming within and between languages in semantic classification of concrete and abstract words","volume":"19","author":"Francis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Memory"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2474","DOI":"10.3758\/s13421-025-01721-0","article-title":"Reading or translating words in story contexts facilitates their production the next day: evidence from bilingual repetition priming","volume":"53","author":"Francis","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104572","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2024.104572","article-title":"Isolated and contextualized comprehension exposures have sustained effects on spoken word production: evidence from bilingual repetition priming","volume":"140","author":"Francis","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Mem. Lang."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.3758\/s13421-021-01214-w","article-title":"Comprehension exposures to words in sentence contexts impact spoken word production","volume":"50","author":"Francis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03193288","article-title":"Repetition priming endurance in picture naming and translation: contributions of component processes","volume":"35","author":"Francis","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.3758\/s13421-013-0338-1","article-title":"The consequences of language proficiency and difficulty of lexical access for translation performance and priming","volume":"42","author":"Francis","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2014.00061","article-title":"What makes deeply encoded items memorable? Insights into the levels of processing framework from neuroimaging and neuromodulation","volume":"5","author":"Galli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Psych."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1037\/a0022256","article-title":"Frequency drives lexical access in reading but not in speaking: the frequency-lag hypothesis","volume":"140","author":"Gollan","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Gen."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"970","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.16.6.970","article-title":"Level-of-processing effects in conceptually driven implicit tasks","volume":"16","author":"Hamann","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.28.4.726","article-title":"Within- and between-language priming differ: evidence from repetition of pictures in Spanish-English bilinguals","volume":"28","author":"Hernandez","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1006\/jmla.1994.1008","article-title":"Category interference in translation and picture naming: evidence for asymmetric connections between bilingual memory representations","volume":"33","author":"Kroll","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Mem. Lang."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3333","DOI":"10.1080\/13670050.2022.2052790","article-title":"A conceptual analysis of typological distance and its potential consequences on the bilingual brain","volume":"25","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Biling. Educ. Bilingual."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728908003453","article-title":"Evidence for long-term cross-language repetition priming in low fluency Chinese-English bilinguals","volume":"12","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biling. Lang. Congn."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1414","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.01414","article-title":"Differences in working memory with emotional distraction between proficient and non-proficient bilinguals","volume":"11","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.3923\/jas.2008.1055.1060","article-title":"Effects of attention and levels of processing on explicit and implicit memory function with interesting and uninteresting tasks in university students","volume":"8","author":"Mahdavian","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03211557","article-title":"The effects of levels-of-processing and organization on conceptual implicit memory in the category exemplar production test","volume":"27","author":"Mulligan","year":"1999","journal-title":"Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1027\/1618-3169.51.2.132","article-title":"Levels of processing effects on implicit and explicit memory tasks: using question position to investigate the lexical-processing hypothesis","volume":"51","author":"Newell","year":"2004","journal-title":"Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1006\/brcg.1999.1116","article-title":"Verb generation priming involves conceptual implicit memory","volume":"41","author":"Seger","year":"1999","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1017\/s1366728917000645","article-title":"Target accessibility contributes to asymmetric priming in translation and cross-language semantic priming in unbalanced bilinguals","volume":"22","author":"Smith","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biling. Lang. Congn."},{"key":"ref1101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2606","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-018-1038-3","article-title":"Chinese lexical database (CLD): a large-scale lexical database for simplified Mandarin Chinese","volume":"50","author":"Sun","year":"2018","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1080\/09658211.2016.1173704","article-title":"Between-language repetition priming in antonym generation: evidence that translation-equivalent adjectives have shared conceptual representations across languages","volume":"25","author":"Taylor","year":"2017","journal-title":"Memory"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1080\/09658211.2020.1845740","article-title":"How word comprehension exposures facilitate later spoken production: implications for lexical processing and repetition priming","volume":"29","author":"Tsuboi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Memory"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-016-1151-1","article-title":"Non-cognate translation priming in masked priming lexical decision experiments: a meta-analysis","volume":"24","author":"Wen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/s0749-596x(03)00020-2","article-title":"Evidence for long-term cross-language repetition priming in conceptual implicit memory tasks","volume":"49","author":"Zeelenberg","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Mem. Lang."},{"key":"ref39","first-page":"30","article-title":"Within- and between-language repetition priming effect of picture naming in Chinese-English bilinguals","volume":"3","author":"Zhang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Stud. Psychol. Behavior"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1857807\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T05:57:41Z","timestamp":1785304661000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1857807\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]]},"references-count":40,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1857807"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1857807","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]]},"article-number":"1857807"}}