{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T05:59:57Z","timestamp":1790315997600,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790294400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Research on generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) in higher education has expanded rapidly, but the field still explains student adoption more clearly than it explains how AI supported activity becomes higher quality learning. Prior studies have tended to emphasize use intention, broad AI literacy, ethical concern, or general perceptions of impact, while offering less precise accounts of the process linking supportive educational contexts to students' trust judgments, regulatory behavior, and developmental outcomes.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To address this gap, the present study proposes and tests a contextual support, trust calibration, collaborative regulation, and perceived transfer gains model using an exploratory sequential mixed methods design. In Study 1, semi structured interviews with university students were analyzed through open, axial, and selective coding to identify the core dimensions of the model and to inform item development. In Study 2, a 22 item instrument was pilot tested and then administered to 642 students for confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results and discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The structural model showed that contextual support positively predicted trust calibration and collaborative regulation; trust calibration positively predicted collaborative regulation and perceived transfer gains; and collaborative regulation showed the strongest association with perceived transfer gains. The direct path from contextual support to perceived transfer gains was not statistically significant, whereas the chained indirect pathway through trust calibration and collaborative regulation was significant. The findings suggest that developmental benefits in students' collaboration with GenAI are better understood as theory consistent structural relationships shaped by contextual guidance, calibrated trust, and active regulation rather than as automatic consequences of frequent AI use. The study contributes a more differentiated process model for GenAI supported learning in higher education and clarifies the interpretive limits of subjective cross sectional outcome measures.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1861072","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T05:32:59Z","timestamp":1790314379000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Trust calibration and perceived developmental gains in university students' collaboration with generative AI: an exploratory sequential mixed methods study"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Fan","family":"Bu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Marxism, Heilongjiang University","place":["Harbin, Heilongjiang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yangzhou University","place":["Yangzhou, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e31887","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e31887","article-title":"Exploring factors influencing the acceptance of chatgpt in higher education: a smart education perspective","volume":"10","author":"Almogren","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100482","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2025.100482","article-title":"Developing generative ai literacies through self-regulated learning: a human-centered approach","volume":"9","author":"Anders","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Educ.: Artif. Intell"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s41235-024-00547-9","article-title":"Human and ai collaboration in the higher education environment: opportunities and concerns","volume":"9","author":"Atchley","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cogn. Res.: Princ. Implic"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102411","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijer.2024.102411","article-title":"Chatgpt in the higher education: a systematic literature review and research challenges","volume":"127","author":"Baig","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Res"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iheduc.2025.101036","article-title":"The genai divide among university students: a call for action","volume":"67","author":"Beckman","year":"2025","journal-title":"Internet High. Educ"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1080\/10705510701301834","article-title":"Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance","volume":"14","author":"Chen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Struct. Equat. Model.: Multidiscipl. J"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1108\/ILS-10-2023-0160","article-title":"Exploring generative ai literacy in higher education: student adoption, interaction, evaluation and ethical perceptions","volume":"126","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Inform. Learn. Sci"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104967","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2023.104967","article-title":"Impact of ai assistance on student agency","volume":"210","author":"Darvishi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Educ"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1080\/10528008.2024.2430266","article-title":"Explore, identify, and align: utilizing generative ai as a career coach","volume":"35","author":"Flink","year":"2025","journal-title":"Market. Educ. Rev"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15873","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-023-11834-1","article-title":"Large language models in education: a focus on the complementary relationship between human teachers and chatgpt","volume":"28","author":"Jeon","year":"2023","journal-title":"Educ. Inform. Technol"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1749655","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1749655","article-title":"Ai trust and protean career among university students: the mediating role of intrinsic motivation and the moderating role of job insecurity","volume":"16","author":"Jiang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Front. Psychol"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100436","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2025.100436","article-title":"Glat: the generative ai literacy assessment test","volume":"9","author":"Jin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Educ.: Artif. Intell"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci14050503","article-title":"Strategies for integrating generative ai into higher education: navigating challenges and leveraging opportunities","volume":"14","author":"Kurtz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Educ. Sci"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/s41239-024-00447-4","article-title":"Empowering chatgpt with guidance mechanism in blended learning: effect of self-regulated learning, higher-order thinking skills, and knowledge construction","volume":"21","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1518\/hfes.46.1.50.30392","article-title":"Trust in automation: designing for appropriate reliance","volume":"46","author":"Lee","year":"2004","journal-title":"Hum. Fact"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1961","DOI":"10.1057\/s41599-025-06253-1","article-title":"Exploring trust in generative ai for higher education institutions: a systematic literature review focused on educators","volume":"12","author":"Lelescu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Human. Soc. Sci. Commun"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1177\/00110000251356280","article-title":"Career interventions in the digital age: key challenges and transformative opportunities","volume":"53","author":"Lent","year":"2025","journal-title":"Counsel. Psychol"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1307","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci15101307","article-title":"Students' trust in ai and their verification strategies: a case study at camilo jos\u00e9 cela university","volume":"15","author":"Mart\u00edn-Moncunill","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Sci"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2025.100368","article-title":"The critical role of trust in adopting ai-powered educational technology for learning: an instrument for measuring student perceptions","volume":"8","author":"Nazaretsky","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Educ.: Artif. Intell"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100041","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2021.100041","article-title":"Conceptualizing ai literacy: an exploratory review","volume":"2","author":"Ng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Educ.: Artif. Intell"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1080\/03075079.2024.2323593","article-title":"Human-ai collaboration patterns in ai-assisted academic writing","volume":"49","author":"Nguyen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Stud. High. Educ"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1080\/03075079.2024.2332944","article-title":"Generative ai: is it a paradigm shift for higher education?","volume":"49","author":"O'Dea","year":"2024","journal-title":"Stud. High. Educ"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2025.100487","article-title":"A systematic literature review of generative artificial intelligence (genai) literacy in schools","volume":"9","author":"Park","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Educ.: Artif. Intell"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1629320","DOI":"10.3389\/frai.2025.1629320","article-title":"Artificial intelligence skills and their impact on the employability of university graduates","volume":"8","author":"Portocarrero Ramos","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Artif. Intell"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2025.105465","article-title":"A systematic literature review on designing self-regulated learning using generative artificial intelligence and its future research directions","volume":"240","author":"Qi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Educ"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1753-6405.2007.00096.x","volume-title":"Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research","author":"Robinson","year":"2007"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1737928","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2025.1737928","article-title":"Generative ai use and self-learning in higher education: the role of learning difficulties","volume":"10","author":"Saleh","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Educ"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1787689","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2026.1787689","article-title":"Implementation of ai in career counselling for university students: a systematic review","volume":"11","author":"Sarmurzin","year":"2026","journal-title":"Front. Educ"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101832","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cedpsych.2019.101832","article-title":"Motivation and social cognitive theory","volume":"60","author":"Schunk","year":"2020","journal-title":"Contemp. Educ. Psychol"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1093\/jssam\/smab011","article-title":"Risk of nonresponse bias and the length of the field period in a mixed-mode general population panel","volume":"10","author":"Struminskaya","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Surv. Stat. Methodol"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog1202_4","article-title":"Cognitive load during problem solving: effects on learning","volume":"12","author":"Sweller","year":"1988","journal-title":"Cogn. Sci"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1457299","DOI":"10.3389\/frai.2024.1457299","article-title":"The impact of ai on education and careers: what do students think?","volume":"7","author":"Thomson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Artif. Intell"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.2307\/30036540","article-title":"User acceptance of information technology: toward a unified view1","volume":"27","author":"Venkatesh","year":"2003","journal-title":"MIS Quart"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2024.100315","article-title":"Personality traits for self-regulated learning with generative artificial intelligence: the case of chatgpt","volume":"7","author":"Weng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Educ.: Artif. Intell"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1302","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci14121302","article-title":"The mediating role of generative ai self-regulation on students' critical thinking and problem-solving","volume":"14","author":"Zhou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Educ. Sci"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012109890-2\/50031-7","article-title":"\u201cAttaining self-regulation: a social cognitive perspective,\u201d","volume-title":"Handbook of Self-regulation","author":"Zimmerman","year":"2000"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1861072\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T05:33:01Z","timestamp":1790314381000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1861072\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"references-count":36,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1861072"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1861072","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"article-number":"1861072"}}