{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]],"date-time":"2026-08-11T06:28:22Z","timestamp":1786429702798,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]],"date-time":"2026-08-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786406400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To examine the effect of target load on the multiple object tracking performance of clay pigeon shooters, and to investigate differences in skill level (professional vs. amateur) and gender in this context. The attentional patterns in clay pigeon shooting differ fundamentally from those in ball sports. It remains unclear whether expert advantages exist in multiple object tracking among clay pigeon shooters, and whether long-term training can eliminate gender-based cognitive differences.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Forty clay pigeon shooters (20 professionals, 20 amateurs; 20 males, 20 females) completed a multiple object tracking task with target loads of 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. The dependent variable was tracking accuracy. A 2 (group)\u202f\u00d7\u202f5 (target load) repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted, followed by simple effects analysis. Gender differences were examined using a separate 2 (gender)\u202f\u00d7\u202f5 (target load) ANOVA.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Tracking accuracy decreased as target load increased (main effect of target load:\n                      <jats:italic>\u03b7p<\/jats:italic>\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      =\u202f0.793). No differences were found between professional and amateur shooters when tracking 2 or 3 targets. However, under target loads of 4, 5, and 6, professionals showed higher tracking accuracy than amateurs (group \u00d7 target load interaction:\n                      <jats:italic>\u03b7p<\/jats:italic>\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      =\u202f0.095; simple effects:\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =\u202f0.003, 0.005, and 0.014, respectively). No differences were observed between male and female athletes under any target load condition (main effect of gender:\n                      <jats:italic>\u03b7p<\/jats:italic>\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      =\u202f0.055,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =\u202f0.145; gender \u00d7 target load interaction:\n                      <jats:italic>\u03b7p<\/jats:italic>\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      =\u202f0.024,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =\u202f0.431).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Clay pigeon shooters exhibit an expert advantage under high target loads in multiple object tracking tasks. This advantage may reflect domain-general cognitive resources such as working memory updating, attentional reorienting, and inhibitory control, rather than sport-specific multiple-object attentional capacity. No performance differences were observed between male and female athletes, suggesting that long-term intensive training may eliminate the gender gap in spatial attention commonly found in the general population. High-load multiple object tracking tasks may serve as a cognitive diagnostic tool for athlete selection in clay pigeon shooting.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1879857","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]],"date-time":"2026-08-11T05:40:25Z","timestamp":1786426825000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Performance of clay pigeon shooters in multiple object tracking under different target loads: skill level and gender differences"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Kai","family":"Jin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education, Southeast University","place":["Nanjing, Jiangsu, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pingze","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education, Southeast University","place":["Nanjing, Jiangsu, China"]},{"name":"Liaoning Provincial Sports Bureau","place":["Shenyang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xupeng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics","place":["Nanjing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/s1440-2440(99)80180-7","article-title":"Visual characteristics of clay target shooters","volume":"2","author":"Abernethy","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Sci. Med. Sport"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1080\/02724980543000097","article-title":"Multiple-target tracking: a role for working memory?","volume":"59","author":"Allen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Q J Exp Psychol (Hove)"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1167\/7.13.14","article-title":"How many objects can you track? Evidence for a resource-limited attentive tracking mechanism","volume":"7","author":"Alvarez","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Vis."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1163\/156856897X00357","article-title":"The psychophysics toolbox","volume":"10","author":"Brainard","year":"1997","journal-title":"Spatial Vis."},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1357312","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2024.1357312","article-title":"Dual-task costs in speed tasks: a comparison between elite ice hockey, open-skill and closed-skill sports athletes","volume":"15","author":"Brinkb\u00e4umer","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2012.11.029","article-title":"A sex difference in location-based inhibition-of-return","volume":"54","author":"Brown","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pers. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1027\/1618-3169\/a000277","article-title":"Impairment of shooting performance by background complexity and motion","volume":"62","author":"Caroux","year":"2015","journal-title":"Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1599","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e3181d1b059","article-title":"Quiet eye duration and gun motion in elite shotgun shooting","volume":"42","author":"Causer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e3182035de6","article-title":"Quiet eye training in a visuomotor control task","volume":"43","author":"Causer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref9001","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203771587","article-title":"Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences","author":"Cohen","year":"1988"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2024.103217","article-title":"Pistol shooting performance under pressure: longitudinal changes in gaze behavior of male and female Army cadets","volume":"95","author":"de Amorim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13381","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.13381","article-title":"A meta-analysis of mental rotation in the first years of life","volume":"26","author":"Enge","year":"2023","journal-title":"Dev. Sci."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"850","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2007.01990.x","article-title":"Playing an action video game reduces gender differences in spatial cognition","volume":"18","author":"Feng","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0325351","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0325351","article-title":"Exploring the relationship between motor visual proficiency and performance metrics in elite skeet shooters: an in-depth analysis","volume":"20","author":"Gao","year":"2025","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci15080891","article-title":"From scalp to brain: analyzing the spatial complexity of the shooter\u2019s brain","volume":"15","author":"Gong","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.3758\/s13414-013-0423-3","article-title":"The expert advantage in dynamic pattern recall persists across both attended and unattended display elements","volume":"75","author":"Gorman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atten. Percept. Psychophys."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e20266","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.20266","article-title":"The influence of basketball players\u2019 tracking speed ability on sports decision performance","volume":"13","author":"Gou","year":"","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e19984","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.19984","article-title":"Study on the correlation between multiple object tracking ability and eye-tracking characteristics in sports decision making among basketball players","volume":"13","author":"Gou","year":"","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1710450","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1710450","article-title":"Comparative study on dynamic visual tracking abilities in three-dimensional multi-object tracking tasks among basketball players of different skill levels","volume":"16","author":"Guo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1007\/s10339-020-00954-y","article-title":"Examining the roles of working memory and visual attention in multiple object tracking expertise","volume":"21","author":"Harris","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cogn. Process."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"Article 1071","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12081071","article-title":"The impact of practicing open- vs. closed-skill sports on executive functions\u2014a meta-analytic and systematic review with a focus on characteristics of sports","volume":"12","author":"Heilmann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1167\/13.1.12","article-title":"Splitting attention reduces temporal resolution from 7 Hz for tracking one object to <3 Hz when tracking three","volume":"13","author":"Holcombe","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Vis."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.3758\/app.72.3.628","article-title":"Spatial updating of dynamic scenes: tracking multiple invisible objects across viewpoint changes","volume":"72","author":"Huff","year":"2010","journal-title":"Atten. Percept. Psychophys."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1123\/jsep.2018-0177","article-title":"Attention, perception, and action in a simulated decision-making task","volume":"41","author":"H\u00fcttermann","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Sport Exerc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1037\/xap0000012","article-title":"The size and shape of the attentional \"spotlight\" varies with differences in sports expertise","volume":"20","author":"H\u00fcttermann","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Appl."},{"key":"ref25","volume-title":"Official Statutes, Rules and Regulations: Shotgun Rules","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"987672","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.987672","article-title":"Team ball sport experience minimizes sex difference in visual attention","volume":"13","author":"Jin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e16286","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.16286","article-title":"Association between sports expertise and visual attention in male and female soccer players","volume":"11","author":"Jin","year":"2023","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0175736","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0175736","article-title":"Shared processing in multiple object tracking and visual working memory in the absence of response order and task order confounds","volume":"12","author":"Lapierre","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8635","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-59486-6","article-title":"Gender comparison of perceptual-cognitive learning in young athletes","volume":"14","author":"Legault","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20086","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-70793-w","article-title":"A meta-analysis of performance advantages on athletes in multiple object tracking tasks","volume":"14","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"Article 638822","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.638822","article-title":"Efficiency and enhancement in attention networks of elite shooting and archery athletes","volume":"12","author":"Lu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"Article 443","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13030443","article-title":"Sex differences in cognitive-motor dual-task training effects and in brain processing of semi-elite basketball players","volume":"13","author":"Lucia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e3434","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.3434","article-title":"Peak occipital alpha frequency mediates the relationship between sporting expertise and multiple object tracking performance","volume":"14","author":"Mackenzie","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain Behav."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1123\/jsep.29.4.457","article-title":"Perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport: a meta-analysis","volume":"29","author":"Mann","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Sport Exerc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2025.105271","article-title":"Broadening the lens: a review of multi-object tracking task and its use in cognitive training","volume":"258","author":"Marion","year":"2025","journal-title":"Acta Psychol."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1080\/17509840802641372","article-title":"Pay attention! A review of visual attentional expertise in sport","volume":"2","author":"Memmert","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Sport Exerc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1255","DOI":"10.3758\/s13414-017-1338-1","article-title":"Studying visual attention using the multiple object tracking paradigm: a tutorial review","volume":"79","author":"Meyerhoff","year":"2017","journal-title":"Atten. Percept. Psychophys."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1249\/01.mss.0000185661.01802.67","article-title":"Latency of prosaccades and antisaccades in professional shooters","volume":"38","author":"Morrillo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"Article 8147","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18158147","article-title":"Differences in visuospatial expertise between skeet shooting athletes and non-athletes","volume":"18","author":"Nascimento","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogbrainres.2005.09.011","article-title":"On the neural basis of focused and divided attention","volume":"25","author":"Nebel","year":"2005","journal-title":"Brain Res. Cogn. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.3758\/s13421-020-01118-1","article-title":"Influences of domain knowledge on segmentation and memory","volume":"49","author":"Newberry","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1387","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.01387","article-title":"Long-term practice with domain-specific task constraints influences perceptual skills","volume":"8","author":"Oppici","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-78069-1_16","volume-title":"Designing Environments for Constructive Learning","author":"Prenzel","year":"1993"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1163\/156856888x00122","article-title":"Tracking multiple independent targets: evidence for a parallel tracking mechanism","volume":"3","author":"Pylyshyn","year":"1988","journal-title":"Spat. Vis."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e5732","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.5732","article-title":"Influence of sports expertise level on attention in multiple object tracking","volume":"6","author":"Qiu","year":"2018","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2019.03.008","article-title":"Neural efficiency in basketball players is associated with bidirectional reductions in cortical activation and deactivation during multiple-object tracking task performance","volume":"144","author":"Qiu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"Article 1702","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13121702","article-title":"Neural mechanisms of visual-spatial judgment behavior under visual and auditory constraints: evidence from an electroencephalograph during handgun shooting","volume":"13","author":"Shi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1162\/JOCN.a.96","article-title":"Item-based parsing of dynamic scenes in a combined attentional tracking and working memory task","volume":"38","author":"Styrkowiec","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref49","volume-title":"MATLAB (Version 7.0) [Computer Software]","year":"2005"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2802","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-023-05974-z","article-title":"Characterizing attention resource capacity in autism: a multiple object tracking study","volume":"54","author":"Tullo","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0956-7976.2005.01557.x","article-title":"Measurement of individual differences: lessons from memory assessment in research and clinical practice","volume":"16","author":"Uttl","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.1588","article-title":"Are expert athletes \u2018expert\u2019 in the cognitive laboratory? A meta-analytic review of cognition and sport expertise","volume":"24","author":"Voss","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2017.04.004","article-title":"Motor expertise and performance in spatial tasks: a meta-analysis","volume":"54","author":"Voyer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.117.2.250","article-title":"Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: a meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables","volume":"117","author":"Voyer","year":"1995","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21870","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-07192-2","article-title":"A systematic review and coordinate-based meta-analysis of resting-state fMRI in athletes from open and closed skills sports","volume":"15","author":"Yan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1530642","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1530642","article-title":"Brain plasticity associated with prolonged shooting training: a multimodal neuroimaging investigation from a cross-sectional study","volume":"19","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.16038\/j.1000-6710.2024.03.012","article-title":"Research progress on multiple object tracking tasks in competitive sports","volume":"43","author":"Zheng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chin. J. Sports Med."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1879857\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]],"date-time":"2026-08-11T05:40:27Z","timestamp":1786426827000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1879857\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]]},"references-count":58,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1879857"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1879857","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]]},"article-number":"1879857"}}