{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T07:16:07Z","timestamp":1788419767039,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788393600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Grounded in an integrated framework of the Iceberg Theory, TPACK, and DigCompEdu, this study developed a five-dimensional model and employed mixed methods to investigate the current status and key determinants of digital competence among Chinese preschool teachers. A quantitative survey was administered to 599 practitioners, followed by semi-structured interviews with 15 teachers. The results demonstrated that: (1) Overall digital literacy was at a moderate-to-high level. Among the five dimensions, \u201cDigital Management Competence\u201d scored the highest (\n                    <jats:italic>M<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 4.323), whereas \u201cDigital Leadership\u201d scored the lowest (\n                    <jats:italic>M<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 4.021). Scores for \u201cDigital Education Competence,\u201d \u201cDigital Learning Competence,\u201d and \u201cBasic Digital Skills\u201d fell within the moderate range\n                    <jats:italic>(M<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 4.062\u20134.186). (2) Demographic variables significantly influenced digital literacy. Female teachers exhibited significantly higher digital literacy than their male counterparts [\n                    <jats:italic>t<\/jats:italic>\n                    (140.19) = \u22122.61,\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &amp;lt; 0.01, \u03b7\n                    <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                    = 0.012]. ANOVA revealed significant differences across educational backgrounds; notably, teachers with master\u2019s degrees and those with bachelor\u2019s degrees or below scored significantly higher than doctoral degree holders [\n                    <jats:italic>F<\/jats:italic>\n                    (2, 596) = 37.371,\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &amp;lt; 0.001, \u03b7\n                    <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                    = 0.111]. Teachers with over 11 years of experience demonstrated the highest literacy levels (\n                    <jats:italic>F<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 4.286,\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 0.001). Regarding professional titles, senior teachers scored significantly higher than junior or ungraded teachers, while intermediate title holders exhibited a distinct \u201clow point\u201d [\n                    <jats:italic>F<\/jats:italic>\n                    (3, 595) = 12.717,\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &amp;lt; 0.001, \u03b7\n                    <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                    = 0.060]. (3) Regression analysis identified self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and proactive personality traits as the most significant predictors of digital literacy. (4) Qualitative findings highlighted that while educators recognize the value of digital competence, they face systemic challenges such as inadequate training and uneven resource distribution. Targeted institutional support is recommended to enhance teachers\u2019 self-efficacy and motivation, thereby fostering their digital development.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1888962","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T06:43:15Z","timestamp":1788417795000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Research on the manifestations and key factors of digital competence of China\u2019s preschool teachers"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Jie","family":"Meng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Public Administration, Wuhu Vocational Technical University","place":["Wuhu, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Ouyang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Affiliated Kindergarten of Anhui Normal University, Anhui Normal University","place":["Wuhu, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chenggang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Educational Science, Anhui Normal University","place":["Wuhu, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","first-page":"275","article-title":"La alfabetizaci\u00f3n medi\u00e1tica entre estudiantes de primaria y secundaria en Andaluc\u00eda (Espa\u00f1a).","volume-title":"RIED Rev. Iberoam. Educ. Distancia","author":"Aguaded","year":"2015"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2015.08.152","article-title":"Serious games \u2013 a new perspective on workbased learning.","volume":"204","author":"Ahrens","year":"2015","journal-title":"Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.7577\/njcie.4233","article-title":"From digital competence to professional digital competence: Student teachers\u2019 experiences of and reflections on how teacher education prepares them for working life.","volume":"5","author":"Alm\u00e5s","year":"2021","journal-title":"NJCIE"},{"key":"B4","volume-title":"Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control.","author":"Bandura","year":"1997"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13983","DOI":"10.3390\/su142113983","article-title":"Standards of teacher digital competence in higher education: A systematic literature review | MDPI.","volume":"14","author":"Basantes-Andrade","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1002\/job.4030140202","article-title":"The proactive component of orgnizational behavior:A measure and correlates.","volume":"14","author":"Bateman","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Organ. Behav."},{"key":"B7","first-page":"7384","volume-title":"Structural Equation Modeling with AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming (Multivariate Applications Series)","author":"Byrne","year":"2010"},{"key":"B8","volume-title":"The Impact of Kindergarten Principal Transformational Leadership on Online Parenting Support in Kindergartens: The Mediating Effect of Teacher Self-efficacy.","author":"Cai","year":"2024"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.13861\/j.cnki.sece.2024.03.002","article-title":"A study on digital literacy of kindergarten teachers based on national standards framework.","volume":"3","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Stud. Early Childh. Educ."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1093\/elt\/ccx046","article-title":"EFL teachers\u2019 self-efficacy and teaching practices.","volume":"76","author":"Choi","year":"2018","journal-title":"ELT J."},{"key":"B11","first-page":"42","article-title":"The Relationship between proactive personality of preschool teachers and their attitudes towards inclusive education: The mediating role of inclusive education efficacy.","volume":"41","author":"Cui","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Shaanxi Xueqian Normal Univer."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1177\/10538151241235613","article-title":"Preschool teachers\u2019 perceptions and use of naturalistic developmental behavioral intervention strategies: An explanatory sequential mixed methods investigation.","volume":"47","author":"D\u2019Agostino","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Early Interv."},{"key":"B13","volume-title":"\u201cProfessional Development for Digital Competencies in Early Childhood Education and Care: Asystematic Review\u201d. OECD Education Working Papers No. 295.","author":"Dardanou","year":"2023"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1007\/s10643-020-01117-6","article-title":"\u201ceverybody has to get a chance to learn\u201d: Democratic aspects of digitalisation in preschool.","volume":"49","author":"Enochsson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Early Child. Educ. J."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5961","DOI":"10.3390\/app15115961","article-title":"Digital gamification to foster attitudes toward science in early childhood teacher education.","volume":"15","author":"Fabre-Mitjans","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Sci."},{"key":"B16","unstructured":"Fethi\n              A. I.\n            \n            \n              Deborah\n              L. L.\n            \n          \n          Factors Affecting Technology Integration in K-12 Classrooms: a Path Model on JSTOR.\n          \n          2020"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1007\/s10643-021-01289-9","article-title":"Collegial learning and digital literacy education in a swedish preschool.","volume":"51","author":"Forsling","year":"2023","journal-title":"Early Child. Educ. J."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci13020162","article-title":"Digital competence of training teachers: Results of a teaching innovation project.","volume":"13","author":"Gabarda M\u00e9ndez","year":"2023","journal-title":"Educ. Sci."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1351","DOI":"10.1007\/s10758-022-09616-8","article-title":"Developing the teacher self-efficacy scale in the use of ICT at home for pre-school distance education during covid-19.","volume":"28","author":"G\u00f6z\u00fcm","year":"2023","journal-title":"Technol. Knowl. Learn."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100001","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2020.100001","article-title":"Vision, challenges, roles and research issues of artificial intelligence in education.","volume":"1","author":"Gwo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Educ. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijer.2024.102381","article-title":"Relationship between teachers\u2019 digital competence and attitudes towards artificial intelligence in education.","volume":"126","author":"H\u00e9ctor","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Res."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1007\/s44217-025-00849-0","article-title":"Early childhood education teachers\u2019 perceptions of pedagogical competence 4.0 in supporting early childhood development.","volume":"4","author":"Herman","year":"2025","journal-title":"Discov. Educ."},{"key":"B23","volume-title":"Construction and Application of a Digital Competence Model for Primary and Secondary School Teachers-A Study on Teachers in Rural Areas of Western China.","author":"Hu","year":"2023"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.19618\/j.cnki.issn2096-319x.2024.01.013","article-title":"Construction and empirical testing of the digital literacy level system for primary school teachers.","volume":"8","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Teach. Dev. Res."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.24211\/tjkte.2024.41.2.165","article-title":"A systematic literature review on teachers\u2019 digital competences.","volume":"41","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Korean Teach. Educ."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.34069\/AI\/2024.73.01.9","article-title":"Teaching professional competence in preschool education.","volume":"13","author":"Kozak","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rev. Amazon. Investiga"},{"key":"B27","unstructured":"Leh\n              J.\n            \n          \n          AI in LMS: 10 Must-See Innovations for Learning Professionals.\n          \n          2022"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21338","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144-024-05865-1","article-title":"Factor structure and psychometric properties of the digital competence of educators among Chinese primary and secondary school teachers.","volume":"43","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Psychol."},{"key":"B29","first-page":"20","article-title":"How to be \u201ccompetent\u201d: The development status and optimizationpath of preschool teachers\u2019 digital competency in the digitalintelligence era-an empirical study based on the OECD digitalcompetency framework.","volume":"41","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Shaanxi Xueqian Normal Univer"},{"key":"B30","first-page":"47","article-title":"Research on the Improvement of Digital Literacy of Middle School Teachers:Current Situation, Influencing Factors and Countermeasures.","volume":"1","author":"Liu","year":"2026","journal-title":"China Educ. Technol. Equipment"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105030","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2024.105030","article-title":"Systematic review of quantitative research on digital competences of in-service school teachers.","volume":"215","author":"Magdalena","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3009","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-020-10399-7","article-title":"Situating ICT in early childhood teacher education.","volume":"26","author":"Masoumi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6770","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18136770","article-title":"ICT, disability, and motivation: Validation of a measurement scale and consequence model for inclusive digital knowledge.","volume":"18","author":"Medina-Garc\u00eda","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1228","DOI":"10.1080\/03004430.2017.1372756","article-title":"Digital technologies in early childhood education \u2013 a frame analysis of preservice teachers\u2019 perceptions.","author":"Mertala","year":"2019","journal-title":"Early Child Dev. Care"},{"key":"B35","volume-title":"China\u2019s Wisdom Education White Paper.","year":"2025"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-016-9378-y","article-title":"Reconceptualizing the sources of teaching self-efficacy: A critical review of emerging literature.","volume":"27","author":"Morris","year":"2017","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/02619768.2024.2341935","article-title":"Early childhood pre-service teachers\u2019 preparation for using technology with children: A systematic literature review.","volume":"49","author":"Papavlasopoulou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Teach. Educ."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.24159\/joec.2024.30.6.71","article-title":"Analysis of digital competency of primary and secondary school teachers: Focusing on teachers in gyeongbuk.","volume":"30","author":"Park","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Educ. Cult."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.13541\/j.cnki.chinade.2024.01.004","article-title":"The localization construction of questionnaire for digital literacy assessment of primary and secondary school teachers \u2014 based on the industry standard \u201cteacher digital literacy.","volume":"36","author":"Peng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Modern Distance Educ. Res."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18844\/wjet.v14i1.6250","article-title":"Development of teaching digital competence in initial teacher training: A systematic review.","volume":"14","author":"Pinto-Santos","year":"2022","journal-title":"World J. Educ. Technol. Curr. Issues"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-9010.88.5.879","article-title":"Common method biasesinbehavioral research:A criticalreviewoftheliterature and recommend ed remedies.","volume":"88","author":"Podsakoff","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Psychol."},{"key":"B42","volume-title":"European Framework for the Digital Competence of Educators: DigCompEdu.","author":"Redecker","year":"2017"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2015.08.160","article-title":"Competency of adult learners in learning: Application of the iceberg competency model.","volume":"204","author":"Salleh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Procedia - Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.13209\/j.0479-8023.2009.081","article-title":"The impact of proactive personality on career decision self-efficacy of college graduates.","volume":"45","author":"Shang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acta Scientiarum Naturalium Universitatis Pekinensis"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/2331186X.2022.2063224","article-title":"Teachers\u2019 professional digital competence: An overview of conceptualisations in the literature.","volume":"9","author":"Skantz-\u00c5berg","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cogent Educ."},{"key":"B46","first-page":"113","article-title":"The current state and breakthrough paths of digital literacy among primary and secondary school teachers in China \u2014 based on the assessment of 9,405 Primary and secondary school teachers nationwide.","volume":"12","author":"Song","year":"2023","journal-title":"China Educ. Technol."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6667","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-13094-z","article-title":"Development and validation of teacher artificial intelligence (AI) competence self-efficacy (TAICS) scale","volume":"30","author":"Thomas","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.5937\/cm17-35973","article-title":"Odnos gra\u011fana bosne i hercegovine prema dezinformacijama tokom pandemije virusa korona s obzirom na nivo obrazovanja","volume":"17","author":"Trnini\u0107","year":"2022","journal-title":"Commun. Media"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1080\/01443410903494460","article-title":"Exploring the association between teachers\u2019 perceived student misbehaviour and emotional exhaustion: The importance of teacher efficacy beliefs and emotion regulation.","volume":"30","author":"Tsouloupas","year":"2010","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-12591-5","article-title":"Digital learning for preschools: Validation of basic ICT competence beliefs of preschool teachers in hong kong and the philippines.","volume":"29","author":"Valdez","year":"2024","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"B51","unstructured":"Wang\n              S.\n            \n            \n              Fan\n              Y.\n            \n          \n          A Study of the Status Quo of Public Service Demands for Preschool Digital Education Resources from the Perspective of Kindergarten Principals.\n          \n          2024"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2021.104210","article-title":"Measuring confidence engaging in computer activities at different skill levels: Development and validation of the brief inventory of technology self-efficacy (BITS).","volume":"169","author":"Weigold","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1007\/s10902-016-9827-9","article-title":"Enhancing a sense of competence at work by engaging in proactive behavior: The role of proactive personality.","volume":"19","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Happiness Stud."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.16276\/j.cnki.cn51-1670\/g.2024.04.007","article-title":"Integration paths of talent cultivation programs for preschool education majors in higher vocational colleges from the perspective of Standards: A case study of the certification standards for preschool education majors and the teaching standards for preschool education majors.","volume":"43","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mianyang Teach. College"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1008372","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.1008372","article-title":"Early childhood teachers\u2019 professional learning about ICT implementation in kindergarten curriculum: A qualitative exploratory study in China.","volume":"13","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144-024-06126-x","article-title":"Examining the relationship between pre-service early childhood teachers\u2019 digital competence, technology use, and technology self-efficacy.","volume":"23","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Learn. Centered Curriculum Educ. Res."},{"key":"B57","first-page":"64","article-title":"Research Hotspots and future trends of digital competence of preschool teachers based on citespace analysis.","volume":"14","author":"Yu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heilongjiang Sci."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23845","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-025-13713-3","article-title":"Assessing digital competence among English teachers in higher education: Insights from China.","volume":"30","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"B59","volume-title":"Research on the Construction of Middle School Teachers\u2019 Wise Teaching Competence Model and Its Influencing Factors - Taking Junior High School English Teachers as an Example.","author":"Zhang","year":"2023"},{"key":"B60","volume-title":"Research on the Construction and Application of a Digital Competence Model for Primary and Secondary School Teachers in China.","author":"Zheng","year":"2019"},{"key":"B61","first-page":"115","article-title":"Research on the evolution path and multi-level influence mechanisms of teachers\u2019 digital literacy\u2014an empirical analysis based on five-year large-sample data.","volume":"9","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"China Educ. Technol."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1888962\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T06:43:25Z","timestamp":1788417805000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1888962\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]]},"references-count":61,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1888962"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1888962","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]]},"article-number":"1888962"}}