{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T15:00:09Z","timestamp":1791385209115,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791331200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>While investments in physical school infrastructure are widely recognized as important determinants of student learning, the academic role of psychosocial infrastructure remains insufficiently theorized and empirically underexplored. This study examines whether psychological counseling room infrastructure (PCRI)\u2014defined as the availability and facility condition of school-based psychological counseling rooms\u2014is associated with better students\u2019 academic performance and contributes to educational equity in China.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Using nationally representative data from the 2014-2015 China Education Panel Survey (CEPS), this study estimates the association between PCRI and students\u2019 academic achievement. PCRI is measured at the school level, while student performance is captured by standardized test scores. The empirical analysis controls for a rich set of student, family, classroom, and school characteristics, and exploits the quasi-random assignment of students to classrooms within schools to reduce selection concerns. Mechanism analyses are conducted to examine the psychological well-being and motivational enhancement channels, and moderation analyses are used to assess whether PCRI has stronger effects among structurally disadvantaged student groups.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>PCRI is positively and significantly associated with students\u2019 academic performance. The estimated coefficient is 4.467 with a 95% confidence interval of [3.908, 5.027]. A one-standard-deviation increase in PCRI is associated with a 3.26-point increase in test scores, with a 95% confidence interval of [2.853, 3.670], equivalent to 4.92% of the sample mean. Mechanism analyses reveal two distinct pathways: a psychological well-being channel, reflected in improved mental health and enhanced confidence in the future, and a motivational enhancement channel, reflected in higher educational self-expectations and stronger learning engagement. Moderation analyses further show that the academic returns to PCRI are larger among migrant students, students from less-educated families, students in schools with fewer psychologically trained teachers, and rural students.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The findings suggest that school-based psychological support infrastructure is not merely an auxiliary school resource, but an important component of the educational environment associated with students\u2019 academic achievement and educational equity. By identifying psychological counseling room infrastructure as a distinct school resource, this study highlights how school resources may be linked to academic performance not only through instructional and material conditions, but also through students\u2019 psychological well-being and motivational development.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1902392","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T14:32:16Z","timestamp":1791383536000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The hidden classroom: how psychosocial infrastructure shapes academic achievement and educational equity in China"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"E.","family":"Lin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Education, Shanghai Normal University","place":["Shanghai, China"]},{"name":"Principal Training Department, Fujian Institute of Education","place":["Fuzhou, Fujian, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kexin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Newhuadu Business School, Minjiang University","place":["Fuzhou, Fujian, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhongyu","family":"Deng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Education, Central China Normal University","place":["Wuhan, Hubei, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Junbing","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Newhuadu Business School, Minjiang University","place":["Fuzhou, Fujian, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/qje\/qjac038","article-title":"When should you adjust standard errors for clustering?","volume":"138","author":"Abadie","year":"2023","journal-title":"Q. J. Econ."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1636","DOI":"10.1080\/00220388.2010.514330","article-title":"The impact of school meals on school participation: evidence from rural India","volume":"47","author":"Afridi","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Dev. Stud."},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-economics-081624-080702","article-title":"Socio-emotional skills and the future of education","volume":"17","author":"Algan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Econ."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1207\/S15326985EP3704_1","article-title":"Social-emotional factors affecting achievement outcomes among disadvantaged students: closing the achievement gap","volume":"37","author":"Becker","year":"2002","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102919","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdeveco.2022.102919","article-title":"The effect of computer-assisted learning on students' long-term development","volume":"158","author":"Bianchi","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Dev. Econ."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.53.100901.135233","article-title":"Socioeconomic status and child development","volume":"53","author":"Bradley","year":"2002","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674028845","volume-title":"The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design","author":"Bronfenbrenner","year":"1979"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.3368\/jhr.50.2.317","article-title":"A practitioner\u2019s guide to cluster-robust inference","volume":"50","author":"Cameron","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hum. Resour."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsp.2018.12.002","article-title":"School adjustment of children from rural migrant families in urban China","volume":"72","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Sch. Psychol."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.13968","article-title":"The state of evidence for social and emotional learning: a contemporary meta-analysis of universal school-based SEL interventions","volume":"94","author":"Cipriano","year":"2023","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327965PLI1104_01","article-title":"The \u201cwhat\u201d and \u201cwhy\u201d of goal pursuits: human needs and the self-determination of behavior","volume":"11","author":"Deci","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychol. Inq."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1080\/2372966X.2020.1837607","article-title":"Results from a statewide school-based mental health program: effects on school climate","volume":"50","author":"DiGirolamo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sch. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.91.4.795","article-title":"Schooling and labor market consequences of school construction in Indonesia: evidence from an unusual policy experiment","volume":"91","author":"Duflo","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. Econ. Rev."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x","article-title":"The impact of enhancing students\u2019 social and emotional learning: a meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions","volume":"82","author":"Durlak","year":"2011","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153","article-title":"Motivational beliefs, values, and goals","volume":"53","author":"Eccles","year":"2002","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.2202\/1935-1682.2191","article-title":"Mental health and academic success in college","volume":"9","author":"Eisenberg","year":"2009","journal-title":"B.E. J. Econ. Anal. Policy"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jue.2019.103241","article-title":"The consequences of friendships: evidence on the effect of social relationships in school on academic achievement","volume":"116","author":"Fletcher","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Urban Econ."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.childyouth.2014.09.010","article-title":"Harvesting hardships: educators\u2019 views on the challenges of migrant students and their consequences on education","volume":"47","author":"Free","year":"2014","journal-title":"Child Youth Serv. Rev."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S256","DOI":"10.3368\/jhr.1121-11838R2","article-title":"Effects of school-based mental health services on youth outcomes","volume":"59","author":"Golberstein","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Hum. Resour."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2022.10.009","article-title":"Geographic disparities in the availability of mental health services in U.S. public schools","volume":"64","author":"Graves","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.3102\/0013189X018004045","article-title":"The impact of differential expenditures on school performance","volume":"18","author":"Hanushek","year":"1989","journal-title":"Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.3102\/01623737019002141","article-title":"Assessing the effects of school resources on student performance: an update","volume":"19","author":"Hanushek","year":"1997","journal-title":"Educ. Eval. Policy Anal."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-economics-080213-040753","article-title":"The economics of human development and social mobility","volume":"6","author":"Heckman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Econ."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1086\/504455","article-title":"The effects of cognitive and noncognitive abilities on labor market outcomes and social behavior","volume":"24","author":"Heckman","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Labor Econ."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.3102\/0013189X023003005","article-title":"An exchange: part I: does money matter? A meta-analysis of studies of the effects of differential school inputs on student outcomes","volume":"23","author":"Hedges","year":"1994","journal-title":"Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2072","DOI":"10.1086\/699018","article-title":"What do test scores miss? The importance of teacher effects on non-test-score outcomes","volume":"126","author":"Jackson","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Polit. Econ."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.19985\/j.cnki.cassjwe.2023.07.007","article-title":"Government educational investment, human capital and common prosperity","volume":"7","author":"Kang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. World Econ."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1207","DOI":"10.1007\/s00181-017-1321-5","article-title":"Tenure system and its impact on grading leniency, teaching effectiveness and student effort","volume":"55","author":"Keng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Empir. Econ."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jeconom.2005.02.011","article-title":"Generalized reduced rank tests using the singular value decomposition","volume":"133","author":"Kleibergen","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Econom."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1080\/02671522.2019.1615116","article-title":"The relationships between school belonging and students\u2019 motivational, social-emotional, behavioural, and academic outcomes in secondary education: a meta-analytic review","volume":"35","author":"Korpershoek","year":"2020","journal-title":"Res. Pap. Educ."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3368\/jhr.54.1.0916.8265R3","article-title":"Teacher effects on complex cognitive skills and social-emotional competencies","volume":"54","author":"Kraft","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hum. Resour."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1080\/1754730X.2013.784615","article-title":"Educator mental health literacy: a programme evaluation of the teacher training education on the mental health & high school curriculum guide","volume":"6","author":"Kutcher","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Sch. Ment. Health Promot."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci11080377","article-title":"A review of evidence about equitable school leadership","volume":"11","author":"Leithwood","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educ. Sci."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.econedurev.2006.02.006","article-title":"Secondary school extracurricular involvement and academic achievement: a fixed effects approach","volume":"26","author":"Lipscomb","year":"2007","journal-title":"Econ. Educ. Rev."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103527","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijedudev.2025.103527","article-title":"The heterogeneous effects of extracurricular tutoring on academic performance and cognitive ability among Chinese junior high school students","volume":"121","author":"Liu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Dev."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1177\/0022146512462888","article-title":"Adolescent mental health, behavior problems, and academic achievement","volume":"53","author":"McLeod","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Health Soc. Behav."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1093\/oep\/gpy006","article-title":"Heterogeneous effects of high school peers on educational outcomes","volume":"70","author":"Mendolia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Oxf. Econ. Pap."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2846","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.20200847","article-title":"Beyond teachers: estimating individual school counselors\u2019 effects on educational attainment","volume":"113","author":"Mulhern","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. Econ. Rev."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpubeco.2014.08.002","article-title":"The effect of school construction on test scores, school enrollment, and home prices","volume":"120","author":"Neilson","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Public Econ."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.1007\/s00148-022-00923-3","article-title":"Troubled in school: does maternal involvement matter for adolescents?","volume":"36","author":"Norris","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Popul. Econ."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0317459","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0317459","article-title":"A study on the mechanism of school support to improve school adjustment of rural left-behind children: analysis based on CEPS (2013-2014) data","volume":"20","author":"Peng","year":"2025","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104723","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2025.104723","article-title":"Parent-child relationship and junior high academic performance: differentiated impacts of fathers and mothers with self-efficacy as a mediator","volume":"253","author":"Qin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Acta Psychol."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2013.04.026","article-title":"Socioeconomic inequalities and mental health problems in children and adolescents: a systematic review","volume":"90","author":"Reiss","year":"2013","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.55.1.68","article-title":"Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being","volume":"55","author":"Ryan","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.p20161101","article-title":"The psychological lives of the poor","volume":"106","author":"Schilbach","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. Econ. Rev."},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.3102\/01623737241254783","article-title":"School choice, socioeconomic status, and stratified enrollment in urban districts: evidence from Detroit","volume":"47","author":"Singer","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Eval. Policy Anal."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.55214\/25766139.v2i5.330","article-title":"Disparity in educational resources between urban and rural areas in China","volume":"2","author":"Song","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res. Educ."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1007\/s12187-018-9573-y","article-title":"Social support and academic stress in the development of psychological adjustment in Chinese migrant children: examination of compensatory model of psychological resilience","volume":"12","author":"Song","year":"2019","journal-title":"Child Indic. Res."},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1994","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.01994","article-title":"Subjective well-being, test anxiety, academic achievement: testing for reciprocal effects","volume":"6","author":"Steinmayr","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511614491.006","volume-title":"Identification and Inference for Econometric Models: Essays in Honor of Thomas Rothenberg","author":"Stock","year":"2005"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1080\/09645290600854110","article-title":"Improving student performance in public primary schools in developing countries: evidence from Indonesia","volume":"14","author":"Suryadarma","year":"2006","journal-title":"Educ. Econ."},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"596293","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.596293","article-title":"A randomized controlled trial evaluating the effectiveness of a short video-based educational program for improving mental health literacy among schoolteachers","volume":"12","author":"Ueda","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Psych."},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-015-9319-1","article-title":"School climate: a review of the construct, measurement, and impact on student outcomes","volume":"28","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.2147\/PRBM.S357710","article-title":"The relationship between parent-adolescent communication and depressive symptoms: the roles of school life experience, learning difficulties and confidence in the future","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychol. Res. Behav. Manag."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.childyouth.2009.08.013","article-title":"The effects of individual characteristics, teacher practice, and school organizational factors on students\u2019 bullying: a multilevel analysis of public middle schools in Taiwan","volume":"32","author":"Wei","year":"2010","journal-title":"Child Youth Serv. Rev."},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.3102\/0162373715597298","article-title":"Promise and paradox: measuring students\u2019 non-cognitive skills and the impact of schooling","volume":"38","author":"West","year":"2016","journal-title":"Educ. Eval. Policy Anal."},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1006\/ceps.1999.1015","article-title":"Expectancy\u2013value theory of achievement motivation","volume":"25","author":"Wigfield","year":"2000","journal-title":"Contemp. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2625","DOI":"10.1002\/jcop.22432","article-title":"How parental socioeconomic status contributes to children\u2019s sports participation in China: a cross-sectional study","volume":"48","author":"Xia","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Community Psychol."},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1007\/s12564-022-09786-3","article-title":"Re-examining cultural reproduction theory: cultural capital and adolescent academic achievement in China","volume":"24","author":"Xie","year":"2023","journal-title":"Asia Pac. Educ. Rev."},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.econedurev.2018.10.003","article-title":"Gender achievement gaps among Chinese middle school students and the role of teachers\u2019 gender","volume":"67","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Econ. Educ. Rev."},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4819","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144-023-04695-z","article-title":"Boarding school and depression of Chinese rural adolescents: effect, mechanism and solution","volume":"43","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Psychol."},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"876","DOI":"10.1007\/s10964-024-02106-5","article-title":"Reciprocal relationships between parental involvement and academic performance in early adolescence: a two-year longitudinal study in China","volume":"54","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Youth Adolesc."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1902392\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T14:32:18Z","timestamp":1791383538000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1902392\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]]},"references-count":62,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1902392"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1902392","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]]},"article-number":"1902392"}}