{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,13]],"date-time":"2026-08-13T04:30:38Z","timestamp":1786595438280,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,13]],"date-time":"2026-08-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786579200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Exercise is widely promoted for cognitive ageing, yet the field still lacks a clear account of what constitutes an effective \u201cdose\u201d when cognition is the target. From a movement-science perspective, this distinction is important because exercise interventions may differ not only in physical exposure, but also in the perceptual, attentional, coordinative and adaptive demands embedded in movement. Most trials define dose through physical exposure variables, including frequency, duration, weekly volume, intervention length and intensity. However, these metrics do not capture what the exercise task requires cognitively or motorically. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials testing structured exercise in community-dwelling older adults without dementia. Cognitive outcomes were grouped into global cognition and domain-specific outcomes. Hedges\u2019 g was calculated from post-intervention means and standard deviations, with positive values favoring exercise. Random-effects and multilevel models estimated pooled effects and tested whether weekly volume, intervention duration and a structured cognitive\u2013motor demand score explained between-study variability. Thirty-seven trials provided 166 effect-size estimates. Structured exercise was associated with better global cognition (\n                    <jats:italic>g<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u202f=\u202f0.55, 95% CI 0.38 to 0.73), although heterogeneity was substantial and certainty was very low. Domain-specific effects were smaller and generally favorable, but none remained significant after false discovery rate correction. Weekly volume and intervention duration did not consistently explain cognitive effects. Cognitive\u2013motor demand showed only partial overlap with physical-dose indicators, suggesting that it captured a distinct qualitative dimension of exercise content; however, it did not explain effects beyond physical dose. Component-level analyses suggested possible domain-specific patterns for set shifting. Current trials are therefore not yet able to define a precise cognitive dose of exercise. Future studies should test physical dose and cognitive\u2013motor task demands as distinct, potentially interacting dimensions of exercise for cognitive ageing.\n                  <\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Systematic review registration<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:uri>https:\/\/www.crd.york.ac.uk\/PROSPERO\/view\/CRD420250622607<\/jats:uri>\n                      .\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1906526","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,13]],"date-time":"2026-08-13T04:23:53Z","timestamp":1786595033000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Rethinking exercise dose for cognitive ageing: a systematic review and meta-analysis of physical dose and cognitive\u2013motor demands"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Daniela","family":"De Bartolo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology of Developmental and Socialisation Processes, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome","place":["Rome, Italy"]},{"name":"SmArt Lab\u2014Laboratory for the Study of Mind and Action in Rehabilitation Technologies, IRCCS Foundation Santa Lucia","place":["Rome, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liliana","family":"Baleca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SmArt Lab\u2014Laboratory for the Study of Mind and Action in Rehabilitation Technologies, IRCCS Foundation Santa Lucia","place":["Rome, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Claudia","family":"Salera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SmArt Lab\u2014Laboratory for the Study of Mind and Action in Rehabilitation Technologies, IRCCS Foundation Santa Lucia","place":["Rome, Italy"]},{"name":"Department of Psychology, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome","place":["Rome, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabio","family":"Lucidi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology of Developmental and Socialisation Processes, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome","place":["Rome, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e76301","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0076301","article-title":"Creatine supplementation associated or not with strength training upon emotional and cognitive measures in older women: a randomized double-blind study","volume":"8","author":"Alves","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1159\/000369160","article-title":"Aerobic physical exercise improved the cognitive function of elderly males but did not modify their blood homocysteine levels","volume":"5","author":"Antunes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Dement. 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