{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T05:02:03Z","timestamp":1790744523587,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790726400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Recent advances in artificial intelligence, connectomics, and computational neuroscience increasingly raise the question of whether artificial systems\u2014or even pure computer simulations\u2014could become conscious. Contemporary theories emphasize embodiment, predictive processing, homeostatic regulation, and continuous interaction between cognition, body, and environment rather than isolated computation. We propose recursive embodied closure as an integrative framework linking embodied, predictive, functionalist, and dynamical approaches to consciousness. Rather than replacing existing theories, the framework identifies a shared organizational principle: the continuous recursive coupling of cognition, bodily regulation, action, and environmental feedback. We argue that consciousness may, in principle, emerge in artificial systems, including computational simulations, for three reasons. First, consciousness may depend on recursively closed loops linking cognition, body, and environment, and such loops could also be realized in robotic, neuromorphic, or virtual embodiments. Second, evidence from comparative neuroscience, convergent evolution, neurotechnology, and philosophy of mind suggests that the mechanisms relevant for consciousness are largely substrate-independent and may therefore be implemented in both biological and artificial systems. Third, although unknown physical mechanisms cannot be excluded, there is currently no empirical evidence for biological processes that are uniquely necessary for consciousness. Taken together, these considerations support the view that consciousness is best understood as an emergent property of recursively embodied, environmentally embedded cognitive systems rather than of biological matter itself. If so, biological brains, artificial neural networks, neuromorphic hardware, and even virtual agents may constitute plausible candidates for future artificial consciousness.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1950309","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T04:47:22Z","timestamp":1790743642000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Can artificial systems become conscious?\u2014Recursive embodied closure as an integrative framework"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Achim","family":"Schilling","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"BCI and NeuroAI Group, Neuromodulation and Neuroprosthetics, University Hospital Mannheim, University Heidelberg","place":["Mannheim, Germany"]},{"name":"BG Clinic Ludwigshafen","place":["Ludwigshafen, Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrick","family":"Krauss","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BG Clinic Ludwigshafen","place":["Ludwigshafen, Germany"]},{"name":"Physics and Cognition Group, Neuromodulation and Neuroprosthetics, University Hospital Mannheim, University Heidelberg","place":["Mannheim, Germany"]},{"name":"Cognitive Computational Neuroscience Group, Pattern Recognition Lab, University Erlangen-N\u00fcrnberg","place":["Erlangen, Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","volume-title":"A cognitive theory of consciousness","author":"Baars","year":"1993"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0156591","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0156591","article-title":"Ownership and agency of an independent supernumerary hand induced by an imitation brain-computer interface","volume":"11","author":"Bashford","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2023.08.018","article-title":"Consciousness in the cradle: on the emergence of infant experience","volume":"27","author":"Bayne","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trend Cognitiv. 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